LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. PLATE III. Larva? of British Butterflies LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. Edited by R. Bowdler Sharpe, LL.D., F.L.S., &c. A HAND-BOOK TO THE ORDER LEPIDOPTERA. W. F. KIRBY, F.L.S., F.ENT.S. DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, BRITISH MUSEUM. Author of "A Synonymic Catalogue of Diurnal Lepidoptera," " European Butterflies and Moths" "A Text-book cf Entomology " etc.., etc. PARTI. 2Z8Z^A BUTTERFLIES.— VOL. I. MPARNS COLLECTION LONDON : EDWARD LLOYD, LIMITED, 12, SALISBURY SQUARE, FLEET STREET. 1896. PRINTED EY WYMAN AND SONS, LIMITED. PREFACE. The plan of the original "Naturalist's Library" has not been followed in the present volume, as it seemed to me better, in the case of the Lepidoptera, not to separate the British species from the exotic forms. Although numerous works on British Insects have been published, there is none, I believe, exactly on the plan of the present volume, where our native species of Butterflies are described and figured, and at the same time a review of their exotic relatives is attempted. No one more fitted for the task of writing such a review could have been found than Mr. Kirby, whose "Synonymic Catalogue of Diurnal Lepidoptera " is recognised as a stan- dard book of reference ; and the pains he has taken in the preparation of the present Hand-book of the Lepidoptera will, I trust, be the means of presenting to the public one more of those useful essays on Entomology, with which his name has been associated for the last thirty years. Some new plates have been added to the series published in the former issue of the "Naturalist's Library," in order to render the explanation of the different exotic genera more complete. The woodcuts in the text are taken from Newman's well- known work on British Butterflies. K. BOWDLER SHARPE. AUTHOR'S PREFACE. When my friend Dr. Bowdler Sharpe invited me to write the Entomological part of the new " Naturalist's Library," the question of the best arrangement to adopt, exercised me con- siderably, in view of the large number of books on the more popular orders of insects which are continually issuing from the press. I had to try and invent a new scheme which was likely to be useful both to beginners and to more advanced Entomologists. In the old "Naturalist's Library" there was a volume of British and a volume of foreign Butterflies, but I at once aban- doned the idea of adding another to the host of books on British Butterflies alone, while at the same time it was desir- able to use the plates of the old " Jardine " series. I therefore determined to combine these two volumes in such a manner as to make the British Butterflies illustrate and lead up to a study of the Butterflies of the World. I have also added as much popular information, not always to be found in professedly popular books, as I could reasonably introduce. To illustrate the foreign Butterflies, a few new plates have been added, chiefly representing recently described and hitherto unfigured species. In the synonymy I have referred to the original description, and at least one good old, or typical, figure of each species ; and to the works of Stephens, Curtis, and Barrett for British species, Kirby and Lang for European species, and Buckler Vlll AUTHORS PREFACE for British iarvce and pupae. Of course this part of the work might have been enlarged to any extent, but probably most of my readers will think that I have devoted quite enough space to synonymy. The Introduction deals with the general external structure of Lepidopterous insects and especially Butterflies in their various stages ; special attention being given to neuration, collecting and preserving, and geographical distribution I have also re- printed from the "Entomologist" a very interesting paper on the habits of insects, especially Lepidofttera, in the Dutch East Indies. The present volume is devoted to the great family Nympha- Ihitz, which, with its sub-divisions, includes about half the known Butterflies ; the next volume will contain the remaining families, and will thus complete the subject, so far as the Butterflies are concerned. It is perhaps as well to state that the. volumes on Entomo- logy in the old issue of the " Naturalist's Library " were all written by James Duncan, of Edinburgh. Prof. Westwood contributed figures and information to some of the other volumes (see " Entomologist's Monthly Magazine,'' vol. x.xi., pp. 181-1S6), but not to those on British and Exotic Butter- flies. W. F. KIRBY. SYSTEMATIC INDEX. ORDER LEPIDOPTERA A. LEPIDOPTERA RHOPALOCERA FAMILY NYMPHALID^ SUB-FAMILY I. DANAIN^ Genus Hestia, Hiibn H. lyncea (Drury) ... H. idea (Clerck) Genus Ideopsis, Horsf. and Moore I. daosj Boisd. Genus Limnas, Hiibn L. chrysippus (L.) ... Genus Danaus, Latr D. plexippus (L.) ... Genus Ti rum ALA, Moore T. limniace (Cram.) Genus Amauris, Hiibn A. niavius (L.) Genus Nebroda, Moore N. lobengula, E. M. Sharpe Genus Euplcea, Fabr E. corus, Fabr Genus Hi rdapa, Moore II. rezia, Kirby 10 II 13 13 15 15 IS 16 16 iS 19 20 20 21 21 -4 25 X SYSTEMATIC INDEX. PAGE Genus Tellervo, Kirby 28 T. zoilus (Fabr.) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 28 T. misoriensis (Slaud.) ... ... ... ... ... ... 28 SUB-FAMILY II. ITHOMIINiE 29 Genus Ithomia, Httbn 30 I. doto, Hubn. ... ... 31 I. drymo, Hubn. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 31 I. diaphana (Drury) ... ... ... ... 32 I. flora (Cram.) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 32 SUB-FAMILY III. ACR^IN.E 32 Genus Acr^ea, Fabr 34 A. horta(L.) 34 A. oenone, Kirby ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 36 Genus Gnesia, Doubl. ... ... ... ... ... 37 G. circeis (Drury) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 37 G. medea (Cram.) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3S Genus Actinote, Hiibn 3S A. thalia(L.) 39 A. sodalis, Butler ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 40 SUB-FAMILY HELICONIIN^E 40 Genus Heliconius, Latr. 41 II. melpomene (L.) ... ... ... ... ... .. 42 SUB-FAMILY NYMPHALIN^E 43 Genus Metamorpha, Hiibn 46 M. dido (Johanss.) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 47 Genus Cethosia, Fabr 48 C. mahratta, Moore ... ... ... ... ... ... 49 Genus Cynthia, Fabr 50 C. arsinoe (Cram.) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 50 C. Juliana (Cram.) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 51 Genus Argynnis, Fabr 52 A. paphia (L.) 55 o. A. valesina (Esper) ... ... ... ... ... ... 55 A. aglaia (L.) ... ... ... ... 57 SYSTEMATIC INDEX. X i Genus Argynnis {continued). A. adippe (L.) 5 g a. A. cleodoxa (Ochsenh.) 60 /8. A. chlorodippe, H. S 60 A. niobe (L.) 61 a. A. eris, Meigen g 2 A. lathonia (L.) ... ... ... ... g^ Genus Brenthis, Htibn 64 B. euphrosyne (L.) ... ... ... ... ge B. selene (Denis and Schiff ) 66 B. dia(L.) Z 6S Genus Melitaea, Fabr 7, M. aurinia (Rott.) yr M. cinxia (L.) -6 M. athalia (Rott.) yg M. pyronia (Hiibn.) g Q Genus Araschnia, Hiibn. g 2 A. levana (L.) ... ... ... ... ... ... m , g? Genus Polygonia, Hiibn. g6 P. c. -album (L.) g 7 Genus Vanessa, Fabr gg V. polychlorus (L.) gg V. urtica; (L.) g Q V. antiopa (L.) ... ... ... q 2 V. io (L.) Genus Pyrameis, Hiibn. .., 95 96 P. atalanta (L.) 97 P. cardui (L.) ... ... ... ... ... ... gg Genus Junonia, Hiibn IOI J. orthosia (Godart) I02 Genus Kallima, Westw IO e K. huttoni, Moore ... ... ... ... ... ... ... io 6 Genus Anartia, Hiibn I0 g A. amalthea (L.) IO o Genus Ergolis IO n SYSTEMATIC INDE: Genus Catagramma, Boisd. C. pygas (Godart) ... C. astarte (Cram.) ... Genus ILematera, Doubl. H. pyramus ( Fabr. ) Genus Gyn.ecia, Doubl Genus Hypolimnas, Hiibn. Genus Ageronia$ Hiibn A. arethusa (Cram.) A. amphinome (L. ) Genus Makpesia, Hiibn M. peleus (Sulz. ) Genus Limenitis, Fabr. ... L. Camilla (Linn.) ... L. drusilla (Bergstr.) Genus Neptis, Fabr N. aceris (Lep. ) N. nicomedes, Ilewits. SUB-FAMILY VI. APATURIN/E Genus Apatuka, Fabr A. iris (Linn.) a. A. iole (Denis and Scruff.) Genus Thai.eropis, Stand. T. ionia (Eversm.) ... Genus Protogonius, Hiibn. P. fabius (Cram.) ... Genus Aganisth us Genus Charaxes, Ochsenh. C. jasius (L.) C. xiphares (Cram ) C. tiridates (Cram.) C. etheocles (Cram.) SUB-FAMILY VII. MORPHINE SYSTEMATIC INDEX. Genus Morpho, Fabr M. adonis (Cram.) ... M. achilles(L.) SUB-FAMILY VIII. BRASSOLLNL] Genus Cai.igo, Hiibn C. eurylochus (Cram.) C. ilioneus (Cram.)... SUB-FAMILY SATYRIN^E ... II. Lethe Group ... Genus Pararge, Hiibn. TAGE •94 195 l 9S 199 200 200 201 201 I. HET7ERA Group 2Q| . Genus Pierella, Westw , QI . P. ceryce, Hewits „ g 206 207 209 210 212 212 P. egerides, Stand 2Q g a. P. egerides, Staud. 2Q g 0. P. egeria (L.) 2oS Genus Satyrus, Latr S. megcera (L.) III. Mycalesis Group Genus Mycalesis, Hiibn. . . M. simonsii, Butler IV. Mei.anitis Group ,,., 1 ••• ■•• ■■• ■ . ... 214 Genus C/EROIS, Hiibn 2I , C. chorinceus (Fabr.) __ 2I . V. Hipparchia Group 2I - I. Euptychia section ... ... ... ... ... ^ x g Genus Euptychia, Hiibn. 2I g E. brixius (Godart) ... ... ... 2I7 II. Ypthima section ... ... ... ... ... OI g Genus Ypthima, Hiibn 2I g Y. bera, Hewits. 219 xiv SYSTEMATIC INDEX. PAGB Genus Ccenonympha, Hiibn 219 C. tiphon (Rott.) 220 C. polydama (Haworth) 223 C. arcania(L.) 224 C. pamphilus (L.) 225 III. Erebia section 226 Genus Erebia, Dalm 226 E. ligea(L.) 227 E. rethiops (Esper) 228 E. epiphron (Knoch) 229 o. E. cassiope (Fabr.) ... ... 230 IV. Ilipparchia section 230 Genus Hipparchia, Fabr. 231 H. semele (L.) 232 II. hyperanthus(L.) 233 a. II. arete (Mull.) 233 Genus Epinehele, Hiibn. 236 E. janira (L.) 236 E. tithonus(L.) 239 Genus Melanargia, Meigen 240 M. galatea (L.) 240 Genus Argyrophorus, Blanch 242 A. argenteus, Blanch 242 VI. Pronophila Group 242 SUB-FAMILY X. ELYMNIIN/E 243 Genus Elymnias, Hiibn 245 E. cottonis (Hewits.) 2 45 LIST OF PLATES. i.- II.- iii.- IV.- v.— VI.- -Scales, Eggs, Frobosces, &c. -Pupae, Details of Larvae, &c. -Larvae. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV.— XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. Fig. I. Hestia idea (p. 15). Fig. 2. Ideopsis daos (p. 15). Fig. I. Danaus plexippus (p. 19). Fig. 2. Tirumala limniace (p. 20). Fig. 1. Nebroda lobengula (p. 22). Fig. 2. Hirdapa rezia (p. 25). Fig. 3. Tellervo misoriensis (p. 2S). Fig. 1. Ithomia diaphana (p. 32). Figs. 2, 3. Ithomia flora (p. 32), Fig. 4. Gnesia medea (p. 38). Fig. 1. Heliconius erato (p. 42). Fig. 2. Heliconius vesta (p. 42). Fig. 3. Heliconius sylvanus (p. 43). Melamorpha dido (p. 46). -Cethosia mahratta (p. 49). Figs. I, 2. Argynnis paphia (p. 55). Figs. 3, 4. Melitaea cinxia (p. 76). Figs. I, 2. Argynnis aglaia (p. 57). Figs. 3, 4. Brenthis euphrosyne (p. 65). Figs. Figs. Figs. Figs. Figs. Figs. 1, 2 Figs. 3, 4 Figs. 5, 6 -Figs. 1, 2 Fig- 3- -Fig. I. Fig. 2. -Fig. I. Figs. 2 -Fig. Fig. Fig. Argynnis adippe (p. 58). Argynnis lathonia (p. 63]. 1, 2. Argynnis niobe (p. 61). 3, 4. Melitjea athalia (p. 7S). Brenthis dia (p. 68). Brenthis selene (p. 66) Melitiea aurinia (p. 75). Melitaea pyronia (p. 80). Polygonia c. -album (p. S7V 3. Vanessa polychlorus (p. 89). 1. Vanes.sa antiopa (p. 92). 2. Vanessa io (p. 95). I. Vanessa urticae (p. 90). 2, ^. Pyrameis carlu p. 9 V ) 1. Cynthia Juliana (p 51). 2. Anartia amalthea (p. 100). 3. Junonia orthosia (p. 102). 1, 3»4- 5) 6. XVI LIST OF PLATES. XX. — Figs. I, 2. Kallima huttoni (p. 106). Fig. 3. Neptis nicomedes (p. 147). Fig. 4. Thaleropis ionia (p. 167). XXI. — Figs. I, 2. Catagramma astarte (p. 117). Figs. 3, 4. Hiematera pyramus (p. 120). XXII. — Fig. 1. Ageronia arethusa (p. 132). Fig. 2. Ageronia amphinome (p. 134). XXIII. — Figs. I, 2. Pyrameis atalanta (p. 97). Fig. 3. Limenitis Camilla (p 142). XXIV. — Apatura iris (p. 163). XXV. — Fig. 1. Marpesia pelcus (p. 138). Fig. 2. Frotogonius fabius (p. 171). XXVI. — Charaxes jasius (p. 179). XXVII. — Figs. 1, 2. Charaxes tiridates (p. 1S4). Fig. 3. Charaxes etheocles (p. 185). XXVIII. — Fig. I. Morpho adonis (p. 195). Fig. 2. Caligo ilioneus (p. 201). XXIX.— Morpho achillos (p. 105). XXX. — Figs. 1, 2. Erehia ligea (p. 227). Figs. 3, 4. Erebia tethiops (p. 228). XXXI. — Figs. 1, 2. Melanargia galatea (p. 240). Fig. 3. Pararge egerides (p. 208). Figs. 4, 5. Epinephele tithonus (p. 239). XXXII. — Figs. I, 2, 3. Ilipparchia semele (p. 232) Figs. 4, 5. Satyrus megrera (p. 210). XXXIII. — Figs. 1, 2. Epinephele janira (p. 236). Fig. 3. Erebia cassiope (p. 229). Figs. 4, 5. Ilipparchia hyperanlhus (p. 233). XXXIV. — Figs. 1, 2. Coenonympha polydama (C. tiphon on plate) p 223. Figs. 3, 4. Coenonympha tiphon (C. polydama on plate) p. 220. Figs. 5, 6, Coenonympha pamphilus (p. 225). XXXV. — Fig. 1. Pierella ceryce (p. 206). Fig. 2. Argyrophorus argenteus (p. 242V Fig. 3. Yphthima bera (p. 219). Fig. 4. Euptychia brixius (p. 217). Fig. 5. Mycalesis simonsii (p. 213). XXXVI. — Crerois chorinceus (p. 214). XXXVII. — Figs. I, 2. Elymnias cottonis (p. 245). Fig. 3. Acrrea cenone (p. 36). Fig. 4. Actinote sodalis (p. 40). INTRODUCTION. ORDER LEPIDOPTERA. The Butterflies and Moths, or Scale-winged Insects, derive their scientific name from two Greek words — Ae7U9, a scale, and 7rre/3oV, a wing. They pass through four stages of exist- ence : egg ; larva or caterpillar ; pupa, or chrysalis ; and imago, or perfect insect. In their perfect state they are dis- tinguished from other insects by having four wings, always more or less clothed with scales, and a proboscis, with which they imbibe their food. More species of Lepidoptera are known than of any other order of insects, except the Cok- op/era, or Beetles ; but it is probable that they will not be found to exceed the Hymenoptera and Diptera in numbers, when these orders have been exhaustively collected. We will first discuss the general characteristics of Lepidop- terous Insects in their various stages, commencing with the Egg. The eggs of Butterflies and Moths vary very much in size, shape, colour, and sculpture, as well as in the number de- posited. Many of them are very elegant objects under the microscope, though they are always, except in the case of the Micro-Lepidoptera, quite large enough to be visible to the naked eye, and those of some of the large foreign species are not much less than a small pea. The insect deposits 4 n xviii Lloyd's natural history them, singly or otherwise, according to the habit of the species, in such a situation that the larvae, when hatched, will find a plentiful supply of appropriate food. The eggs are covered by a coating of varnish as a protection from the weather ; and though many species pass the winter in other stages, perhaps the majority hibernate in the egg-state. The eggs may be round, oval, cylindrical, or conical. Some are smooth, but many are beautifully ribbed. The form of the eggs of several of our common Butterflies, as they appear when highly magnified, are represented in Plate I. as follows : Fig. 3. Egg of Vanessa urticee, with several longitudinal ridges. Fig. 4. Egg of Pieiis brassica, yellow, sub-conical, with granulated longitudinal ribs, connected by elevated cross- lines. Fig. 5. Egg of Epinephele tithonus, much more com- pressed, but striated very much like the last. Fig. 6. Egg of Epinephele janiro, covered with a series of imbricated scales. Fig. 7. Egg of Hipparchia hyperanthus, with rows of raised points, not unlike a sea-urchin denuded of the spines. Fig. 8. Egg of Pararge egerides, covered with imbricated scales. Butterflies rarely long survive the deposition of their eggs, and are consequently unable to pay any further attention to their offspring. Most eggs of Lepidoptera are semi-transparent, and, as they approach maturity, the young larva can often be seen coiled up inside. Some eggs are provided with a kind of lid, which the larva pushes off when about to emerge. Those which are either not fertilised, or are otherwise unproductive, generally assume a shrunken appearance. Eggs are probably not much exposed to the attacks of enemies, except from certain small PLATE I KKhv WfmMnkbtm* , Details of Larvse, etc. INTRODUCTION. XX1U even on a surface which might appear to the naked eye almost smooth. Several modifications of this curious prehensile foot occur among the larvae of various kinds of Moths, but of these it forms no part of our present purpose to give an account (Plate II., fig. 2, represents the pro-leg of the caterpillar of a Butterfly, after Reaumur ; fig. 3, a pair of pro-legs, showing the manner in which they cling to a branch). " The head of caterpillars is of a harder consistence than the rest of the body, and in most cases seems to be composed of two oval lobes united. In that of the Purple Highflyer these lobes are produced behind into two long occipital horns (Plate III., fig. 6). The conformation of the mouth of Lepidopterous larvae in general bears considerable resemblance to that of several masticating insects ia their perfect state (see Plate II., fig. 4, which represents the under side of the head of a cater pillar). It consists of an upper lip, with a deep notch in the centre (b) ; two strong mandibles, divided at the tip into numerous sharp teeth, which cut the leaves which serve as food (c, c) ; two small and indistinct organs of a soft consistence lying under the mandibles, which may be regarded as the max- illae ; and an under lip (d) . Near the summit of the latter, which is usually of a pyramidal shape, is placed, according to Reaumur, a small conical protuberance, perforated by a small hole, through which issues the silken thread which serves so many important purposes in the remarkable changes these creatures undergo. This organ has been named the spinneret. On each side of the under lip, and connected with it at the base, are two minute palpiform bodies (e, e) which may be re- garded as the labial palpi. "The efficiency of the organs just described is well evinced by the address and rapidity with which these creatures con- sume the leaves which they select for their food. They in- variably begin to gnaw the margin of the leaf, placing the body XXIV LLOYD S NATURAL HISTORY. in such a position that a portion of the edge passes between the anterior legs, which support and keep it steady. Before applying its mouth, the caterpillar stretches its body and ad- vances its head as far as possible, that it may command a larger extent of the leaf. The mandibles are moved with great rapidity, and every time they meet cut off a small piece, which is instantly swallowed. At every motion of the jaws the head is drawn nearer the legs, and after it has been brought as far as possible, the body being contracted for the purpose, it is again extended to the point where it commenced to gnaw, and the same process repeated. In this manner the mandibles describe a succession of arcs, and the leaf is cut in the segment of a circle, somewhat resembling the circular incision made by the Leaf-cutting Bees. It seems, also, that the notch in the middle of the upper lip, formerly alluded to, is of great service, as it is placed on a line with the place where the jaws arise, and serves as a groove, both to give steadiness to the margin of the leaf, and to guide it in the direction most favourable for the jaws to act upon it. "The only remaining organs to which it is necessary to allude are the eyes and antennae. The former appear as small dark-coloured points, arranged in two circles, containing six each, on the anterior part of the head. These points vary in size, and seem to be of the same nature as the simple eyes of spiders, and the stemmata of various kinds of insects. The antennae, often the most conspicuous appendages of the head in perfect insects, are very minute in Lepidopterous larva?, usually consisting of two or three short joints. They are almost always of a conical form, and many species have the power of drawing the joints within each other, like the tubes of a telescope, till they are wholly concealed. " Many caterpillars of the day-flying Lepidoptera are smooth on the surface, or covered only with a very short matted INTRODUCTION. XXV pubescence ; but in some cases they are furnished with rigid hairs and numerous long spines. These hairs are sometimes simple, but more commonly they have a series of small pointed pieces springing from each side, like leaves from a stem. They are seldom placed irregularly over the surface of the skin, but usually issue from a tubercle, and diverge in all directions. These tubercular elevations vary greatly in number, and are placed in a row across the middle of the segments. The spinous caterpillars indigenous to Britain are but little remarkable when compared with many exotic species ; but we have several which afford good examples of this description of defensive armour, such, for instance, as the common kinds that feed on the nettle. In these, and most other instances, the spines are sufficiently strong and sharp as readily to pierce the skin of the hand. They are very often beset with hairs, and frequently divide towards the tip into several small branches. Even when so numerous as entirely to cover the body, they are not placed promiscuously, but arranged like the tubercles formerly mentioned, in a certain order. Each seg- ment, with the frequent exception of that next the head, is armed with a transverse series, varying in number from four to eight. The accompanying figure represents a magnified section of the caterpillar of \Pyrameis\ cardui, exhibiting the number, mode of arrangement, and structure of the spines (Plate II., fig. 5). These appendages in many foreign cater- pillars are said to sting like a nettle, and there can be no doubt that in all cases they are a powerful means of defence, not only against the smaller birds,* but even against more for- midable enemies." (Duncan.) The sole business of insects during the larval stage of their * Few birds prey upon hairy caterpillars, although the Cuckoo, which is extremely fond of the larvoe of the Tiger Moth, Hypercompa caia, Linn. (called, par excellence, the hairy-worm, or more frequently, the Woolly pear), forms an exception to the rule, XXVI LLOYD S NATURAL HISTORY. lives is to eat and grow. The leaves of plants and trees form their chief source of nourishment, but a few species will feed on dried animal or vegetable substances (hair, feathers, &c, like the Clothes Moths), and a single instance is known of a Lepidopterous larva being parasitic on an Homopterous insect. This is Epipyrops anomala, Westwood, a Moth belonging to the ArctiidcB, the larva of which is parasitic on the common Chinese Lantern -fly, Hotinus candelarius, Linn. As we have said be- fore, the eggs are laid by the parent Butterfly or Moth on or near the appropriate food of the future larva, and in most cases the parent insect does not long survive. But undoubtedly there is a great difference in the length of life of different species, and instances are on record in which Lepidoptera have been observed to pair more than once, though this is believed to be quite unusual in insects, the general rule being that male insects generally die very soon after pairing, and female insects soon after they have laid their eggs. This is un- doubtedly the case with many insects; but further detailed observations on the habits of a large number are greatly needed. When the larvae emerge from the eggs, they at once begin to feed, often making their first meal off the empty eggshell. An explanation of this curious habit has lately been offered by Dr. Scudder, who thinks that it is designed to prevent the empty eggshell from acting as an indication of the presence of the newly-hatched larva to insectivorous birds, &c. ; for, while one function of larvae is to prevent the inordinate increase of vegetation, especially in the Tropics, another is to furnish a supply of food to birds and other insect-eating animals. The excessive multiplication of insects is also kept in check by the numerous parasites, by which they are liable to be infested in all their stages. These are chiefly Hymenopterous parasites, called collectively Ichneumons, but really belonging to five or six very different families. There are also Dipterous para- INTRODUCTION. XXVI 1 sites, chiefly of the family Tachinidce, which are similar in their habits to the Ichneumons ; and the maggots produce flies like blue-bottles or house-flies, but with very bristly bodies. These parasites consume the bodies of their victim, so that it dies either in the larva state or as a pupa, the parasites either undergoing their transformations within the empty skin, or emerging from it, and forming their own cocoons round it. Occasionally, if the larva has only been attacked by one or two of the smaller parasites, it attains maturity, but is more or less crippled. Generally speaking, these parasites are more or less restricted to certain species of "hosts," as they are technically called, and attack no others ; but many parasites will attack a variety of different species almost indiscriminately. On Plate II., fig. 8, we have figured one of the parasites which attack the common Cabbage Butterfly ; it is Mia-ogastet glomerahis, Linn., greatly magnified. " The size is very diminutive, the largest specimen seldom exceeding two lines in length. The general colour of the body is deep black, and the legs reddish-yellow. The wings are somewhat longer than the body and pubescent, each of the upper pair having a tri- angular black spot near the middle of the anterior margin (the pterostigma), three discoidal cells, and a triangular areolet, rather imperfectly formed. The abdomen is furnished with an ovipositor, consisting of two flat valves, and a curved horny sheath, terminating in a point. The use of this instrument is to pierce the skin of the caterpillar, and to form a conduit for conveying the eggs into the hole thus prepared for their reception. When the fly has selected a caterpillar fitted for her purpose, she alights upon its back, and plunges her weapon into its body, chiefly at the incisions of the segments, deposit- in^ an egg at every insertion. This operation is repeated till no fewer than thirty or forty eggs are sometimes laid in the body of a single caterpillar. These are soon hatched in their xxvin Lloyd's natural history. singular nidus, and the grubs which they produce immediately begin to feed on the substance of the living animal. They do not, however, devour every part indiscriminately, but are taught by a wonderful instinct to abstain from injuring any vital organ, as if aware that their own existence depended on that of their unwilling foster-parent. In consequence of this the caterpillars survive for a considerable time, and sometimes retain sufficient strength to assume the pupa state, in which, however, they invariably perish. But most frequently the grubs arrive at maturity before that change takes place, and in that case they escape from the body of the caterpillar by gnaw- ing a passage through its sides. Having in this way effected their liberation, they arrange themselves round the sides of the caterpillar, which is now so exhausted that it soon dies, and spin cocoons of a fine yellow colour, in which they are transformed into pupae. When the perfect fly is ready to emerge, it pushes open a small lid at one end of the cocoon, and after it has been for a short time exposed to the air it is ready for flight. "Other minute Ichneumons deposit their offspring in the eggs or in the pupoe of Butterflies, and such numbers are de- stroyed in this way that it is evidently one of the means employed by Providence to keep within due limits a tribe of creatures which, if left to propagate without restriction, would occasion incalculable mischief by destroying almost every kind of vegetable produce." (Duncan}) Not only are most Lepidopterous larvae subject to the attacks of perhaps ten or a dozen different species of insect parasites at least, but to those of thread-worms (Gordius\ fungoid parasites of various kinds, and occasionally external parasites, such as acari and even fleas, besides such enemies as birds, earwigs, woodlice, &c. They are comparatively little affected by cold, but very much, as a rule, by damp, though some live in very damp situations, and a few even in the water. INTRODUCTION. XXIX Caterpillars are very voracious, and increase in size very rapidly ; but as their skin does not expand in proportion, it soon becomes too tight. Then the caterpillar moults, casting off not only the skin, but the horny covering of the head and jaws, and even the lining of the principal internal organs. When a caterpillar is about to moult, its colour begins to fade, and it ceases to eat, and grows sluggish ; and after the moult is over it remains sluggish for a short time, before beginning to eat with renewed voracity. Many caterpillars do not alter very much in appearance or habits or structure from moult to moult ; but some differ considerably. Thus, the young cater- pillars which will have the usual complement of sixteen legs when full grown, sometimes have only ten when they first leave the egg ; and others change their colour, or acquire additional spines, &c, in the course of successive moults. As regards habits, several species of caterpillars live in colonies when they are young, and sometimes under a web ; but when they grow older they separate, and scatter themselves over the plants on which they feed. The caterpillars of some of the smaller Moths are " miners," living in mines or galleries in the sub- stance of leaves ; and the caterpillars of the Green Forester Moths have a similar habit when young, but when older feed exposed on their food-plants. Many caterpillars are protected by their close resemblance to the plants on which they feed, and the brown caterpillars of some of the Geometridce, or Loopers, as they are termed, fix themselves on a branch with their hind-legs, and then stretch their bodies stiffly out, in which attitude they are not to be distinguished from bits of dry stick. Bates once met with a caterpillar, during his travels on the Amazons, which startled him from its exact resemblance to a small venomous snake. Some few brightly-coloured cater- pillars, such as those of the Spurge Hawk Moth, feed in very exposed situations ; but in such cases their bright colours pro- XXX LLOYD S NATURAL HISTORY. bably point them out to insectivorous animals as inedible.* The caterpillar just mentioned feeds openly on the spurge in the most exposed situations. Other caterpillars are provided with retractile tentacles on the neck or at the extremity of the body, which appear to be useful for driving away Ichneumon flies or other small enemies. As a general rule the lives of caterpillars only last a few months, and in some species only a few weeks or days before they arrive at their full growth ; but many caterpillars pass the winter in that state. Sometimes they emerge from the egg in the autumn, go into winter quarters immediately, and eat nothing till spring ; but in other cases they hibernate when partly grown. In the case of double-brooded insects, the broods necessarily occupy much less time to pass through all their stages in sum- mer than in winter, when the rapidity of their development is checked by the cold. And in warm countries many species are double-brooded which are only single-brooded in colder regions. It is believed that the caterpillars of Arctic Lepidop- tera may require several seasons to attain their full growth. These may be frozen hard enough to chink when thrown into a glass, and yet recover when gradually thawed. But nearer home the longest-lived caterpillar known is that of the Goat Moth, which feeds inside the trunks of trees, and takes three years to arrive at maturity. When a caterpillar has reached its full size, and is ready to moult for the last time, it prepares to become a Pupa or Chrysalis. The term a pupa," which means a doll (puppet) in Latin, is enerally applied by entomologists to the intermediate stage 5 * This, of course, is no protection against the attacks of parasites, but rather the reverse. I once bred some Tachiuida (parasitic Diptera) from the above-mentioned larvie. INTRODUCTION. XXXI which insects pass through before assuming the perfect state. In insects with perfect metamorphoses, including Butterflies and Moths, this state is always inactive. Many pupae of But- terflies have a gilded appearance, and such a pupa has been styled a " chrysalis " or " aurelia," terms derived from the Greek and Latin, which express this peculiarity, and which have since been applied to all Lepidopterous pupae, whether gilded or not. But the term "Aurelia" is no longer used, and will not be found in recent works on entomology, though eighty or a hundred years ago collectors of Butterflies and Moths were generally called " Aurelians." The caterpillars of Butterflies generally fix their pupae on or near their food-plants, and a large number suspend them- selves by the minute hooks with which the narrow end of the body is provided, to a little button of silk, and thus hang freely by the tail. These are the Nymphaiidcc ; but in most of the other families the pupa is attached by the tail, but fixed in an upright position, being supported by a belt of silk round the body. Some of the Satyrince occasionally place their pupa? close to, or perhaps even on, the surface of the ground, and the Skippers, and the species of Pamassius, a genus of Alpine Butterflies which includes the well known Apollo Butter- fly, form slight cocoons. Moths are much more varied in their mode of forming th Jr pupae. Many are formed under the surface of the ground, some being naked, and others enclosed in a cell of aggluti- nated earth. Tree-feeding caterpillars often form their cocoons in the chinks of the bark, or in the earth close to the root of the tree on which they have fed. The conspicuous tough boat-shaped cocoons of yellow silk, formed by the Burnet Moths, are very common in meadows, attached to btalks of grass. Many of the large ocellated Silkworm Moths allied to our Emoeror Moth form their cocoons between leaves 0:1 the XXXli LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. trees they have fed upon, but attach them firmly by a strong strand of silk to the branches, so that there is no danger of the leaves falling from the tree. Some species belonging to the same family form their pupae underground, but it is not known whether the same species exhibit this difference of habit, or whether the species are different. Internal feeders, such as the Goat Moth, form their cocoons in galleries in the wood in which they have fed, and many of these have sufficient power of locomotion to push the fore part of their bodies from the gallery into the open air before emerging from the pupa. Other pupae may be found in reeds ; attached to the bark of trees ; among dead leaves ; or in various other situations. Pupae enclosed in cocoons are generally smooth, but those which are naked, and especially those of Butterflies, are fre- quently angular, and others are provided with spines or pro- jecting appendages. The outlines of the principal parts of the future Butterfly or Moth are indicated in the sutures of the pupa ; but the legs, &c, are not enclosed in separate sheaths, as is the case with the pupae of beetles. However, the long proboscis of the Hawk Moths forms an exception, for this is generally enclosed in a separate sheath, sometimes of great length, and curiously twisted. The general colour of pupae which are enclosed in cocoons, or are formed beneath the ground or in other places of concealment, is of a lighter or darker reddish-brown ; but those which are exposed to the light are of brighter colours — generally green or yellow — with black spots ; and green pupae are not unfrequently brilliantly metallic. The cocoons in which many pupae are enclosed differ con- siderably. Some of them are very slight and flimsy, others very thick. Some form a network, and others are solid. They are generally white, brown, or yellow in colour, but occasion- ally green. That of the Silkworm is a short oval yellow or INTRODUCTION. XXX111 white cocoon of solid silk, formed of a double strand measur- ing several hundred feet in length. Others are bottle-shaped, with an opening at one end. On emerging from the pupa state, Butterflies and Moths usually discharge a fluid from their mouths ; and when they have been unusually abundant, the phenomenon has sometimes been imagined by the ignorant to be due to a rain of blood, for this fluid is frequently of a red colour. When a Moth emerges from the pupa, this fluid serves to soften the threads of the cocoon, and some Moths are also furnished with a strong spine under the wings, which they employ to saw through the silk. When a Butterfly or Moth emerges from the pupa it is limp and moist, and the wings are small and rudimentary ; but the body of the insect rapidly dries in the air, and as first fluid and then air is forced through the nervures of the wings, they may be seen to expand and assume their full size and colour, when the insect is at last mature, and capable of reproducing its kind. We have now to consider the insect in its final development as an Imago, or Perfect Insect. Butterflies and Moths, like bugs and two-winged flies, be- long to the Ifaustclldta, or insects with a sucking apparatus in the perfect state, in contradistinction to the Mandibulata, or insects provided with jaws, like beetles, bees, grasshoppers, dragonflies, &c. As in all other true insects, their body is divided into three principal parts, called respectively the head, thorax, and abdomen, each of which is cjnnected with the next by a narrow pedicel. The Anglo-Saxon word, " Buttor-fleoze," has been supposed to have been suggested by the insects being abundant during the butter-season. It may be so ; but we should be more in- 4 c xxxiv Lloyd's natural history. clined to think that it may have been first suggested by the colour of the Brimstone Butterfly, even now a very conspicuous and abundant insect during most of the year, at least in the South of England, and doubtless, in former times, far more abundant than at present. The German word, " Falter," evi- dently alludes to the folding of the wings ; and " Schmetter- ling," probably to the erratic flight of the insect. We have no equivalents for these words in English; but the German word " Motte " is generally applied to a Clothes-Moth. The head is provided with the principal organs of sense, the thorax with those of locomotion, and the abdomen with those of respiration and nutrition. The head is usually of harder consistency than the rest of ;he body, and is often more or less clothed with hair or scales. The most conspicuous organs are the eyes, ocelli, antennce, palpi, and proboscis. The top of the head is called the vertex, the back the occiput, the front the face, and the space round the eyes the orbits. The large compound eyes are placed on each side of the head, and are composed of a great number of facets, varying in number in different species. As many as 17, 32 5 have been counted in the eye of a Butterfly. They are sometimes studded with hairs, and are sometimes naked, and this is of some importance as a subsidiary character in the classification of genera. The number of facets has not yet been sufficiently investigated in vari- ous species to be used in classification, nor do we know how far it is constant in the same species. Between the eyes are placed the ocelli, or simple eyes, on the summit of the head. These eyes consist of a single facet, and vary in number from one to three in various insects. In Moths there are always two, when they are present at all, but in Butterflies and many genera of Moths they are entirely absent. Their presence or absence forms a generic character of importance among the Moths. INTRODUCTION. Further observations on the senses of insects are much needed. There is no doubt that the two classes of eyes function in different ways, and some insects have a much more powerful sight than others. That most insects are capable of recognising colours is certain ; and considering the complicated character of their visual organs, it is, to say the least of it, premature to argue, as some entomologists have recently done, that the sight of Butterflies is so imperfect that Nature can only appear to them as through a thick veil. All considerations of probability, and even practical observa- tions, seem to be quite opposed to such an idea. Attempts have been made, with more or less success, to discover homo- logies between the eyes of insects and those of vertebrate animals ; but we have not space to enter upon these questions in detail. The antennas, often called horns or feelers, are two long jointed organs, situated in front of the head, between the eyes, and before the ocelli, when the latter are present. We will defer discussing their structure in Moths to another volume; in Butterflies they are generally about half as long as the body, or a little more, and are nearly always conspicuously thickened towards the end. Sometimes this thickening is more or less gradual, in which case (especially in the Skippers), the antenna often terminates in a slight hook, and sometimes the antenna is suddenly thickened into a knob at the end. This character is so universal throughout Butterflies, and so exceptional in Moths, that it has always been considered as one of primary importance, Butterflies being called Rhopalocera (Club-Horns), and Moths Heterocera (Different Horns). This distinction may be conveniently applied to separate the first few families of Lepidoptera from the others, especially as we have two such different popular names for them as "Butterflies" and "Moths." In mGst Continental languages they have only one principal word for both, and simply prefix "day" and C 2 xxxvi Lloyd's natural history. "night." Thus "Papillon" in French, from the Latin "Papilio," may mean either a Butterfly or a Moth ; and they distinguish them as " Papillons de jour" and " Papillons de nuit." In front of the face project the palpi, which are three- jointed organs, generally hairy or scaly, and differing consider- ably in length and structure. In Butterflies they are generally nearly straight, or slightly curved upwards. When straight they are called " porrected " ; when raised, "ascending " ; and when depressed, " drooping." The terminal joint is usually long, slender, and pointed. The palpi of Butterflies represent the labial palpi, the maxillary palpi being absent or rudimentary. In Butterflies, the palpi are generally more or less conspicuous, and in one or two genera (Libythina in the Nymphalince, and Libythea, an aberrant genus somewhat intermediate between the Nymphalidcv and the Lemoniidie), they are several times as long as the head. Between the palpi we observe the proboscis, or " the long flexible tube projecting from the mouth, which forms a canal through which the alimentary juices are absorbed. This instru- ment, which is sometimes of great length,* is spirally convo- luted when unemployed, but it can be unrolled with great rapidity, and is admirably fitted to explore the tubular corolla? and deep-seated nectaries of flowers, for the purpose of extract- ing their sweet secretions. It is of a cartilaginous substance, and owes its great flexibility to its being composed of numerous rings or transverse fibres, bearing some resemblance to the annulose structure of earthworms and some other animals. It is formed of two distinct pieces, which admit of being sepa- * Especially in the Sphingidce. In Sphinx convolvuli it attains the length of fcur or five inches, and in some ot the largest foreign Sphinge: {Am- phonyx) it may he almost double that length. In Butterflies it is usually well developed, though not approaching to such great length as in the Sphingida, but in many Bombyces and other Moths, including even some SphingidcE allied to Smerinihus, it is quite rudimentary, or even altogether absent. INTRODUCTION. XXXV11 rated throughout their whole length.* Each of these pieces is traversed longitudinally by a cylindrical tube, and being grooved on their inner side, they form, when united, another canal in the centre, of a somewhat square form, and wider than either of the two lateral ones. The junction of the two pieces is so close that the enclosed tube is perfectly air-tight, and this union is effected by means of an infinite number of filets, resembling the laminae of a feather, which interlace and adhere to each other. Of these three tubes, the central one alone serves for the influx of the alimentary fluids, the two lateral ones being probably employed in transmitting air in aid of respiration,! which, however, is mainly carried on by means of stigmata or lateral pores. The outer extremity of the pro- boscis is frequently beset with many membranous papilla?, resembling leaflets, which have been regarded by some authors as absorbents. From having observed them chiefly in long and slender trunks, Reaumur was led to conceive that their only use is to render that organ more steady, by affording numerous points of support, and adhering in some degree to the substance into which it is inserted — an explanation rendered highly probable by the fact that the long and slender ovipositors of Ichneumons, and many other insects, are generally provided with some pointed projections near the tip, evidently intended for this purpose. Several of the figures on Plate I. are designed to illustrate the structure of the organ just described. Fig. 9 is a magnified view of the trunk, showing its general form, and the projecting points near the tip (a) Fig. 10, is a highly-mag- nified section, exhibiting the two portions (a, l>), of which it is composed, each of them tubular (c, d), and forming by their junction a central canal (e). Fig. 1 1 is another section, repre- senting the under side. In fresh specimens of some of the larger Lepidoptera this may easily be done with a fine needle. t More probably, to facilitate the pumping up of fluids into the mouth. XXXV1U LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. "The two portions of which the proboscis is composed, seem to be analogous to the maxillae or under-jaws of the mandibu lated tribes,* and to receive their great development at the expense of the other oral appendages, most of which are small and inconspicuous. This is not the case, however, with the labial palpi, which are generally of considerable size, and curved upwards in such a manner as to form two projecting points in front of the head. These organs are covered with hair-like scales, are usually of a somewhat conical shape, and consist for the most part of three articulations (see Plate I., fig. 12a). They are attached to a triangular plate, which must be regarded as the labium, or under lip, as it closes the cavity of the mouth, immediately below the insertion of the trunk. On each side of the latter, not far from the base, there is a minute tuber- culiform projection, formed of two or three indistinct joints, which together seem to represent the maxillary palpi. The representation of the labrum, or upper lip, is a minute membran- ous piece, usually approaching to a triangular shape, and two other small projections, more or less dilated internally, and placed one on each side of the proboscis at the base, are analogous to the mandibles of gnawing insects. Most of these parts, however, exist in a very rudimentary condition, and afford another example, in addition to many already familiar to us, of Nature adhering to a particular form of structure after it has ceased to be subservient to any essential function,! for if some of these parts are designed for the same purpose which they serve so effectively when fully developed, it is not easy to see how they could be employed by the insect, or in any way prove serviceable to its economy." {Duncan.) * Bees, Beetles, &c. t Before the advent of Darwin, and his demonstration of the unity of all living beings, rudimentary structures were a great puzzle to philosophic naturalists, who found it very difficult to account for them in any rational or satisfactory manner. INTRODUCTION. XXXIX The head is generally of a uniform colour, but is frequently spotted with white, in which case the antennae are often ringed with white, and the orbits are white. The second division of the body is the thorax, which is com- posed of three segments, called respectively the pro-thorax, meso-thorax, and meta-thorax. The lower surface is called the "pectus," and the sides, below the wings, are called the " pleura." The thoracic segments are closely united in Lepidoptera, and bear the organs of locomotion, each segment bearing a pair of legs, and the two hinder pairs the wings also. The scutellum, which is so largely developed in many beetles and bugs, is inconspicuous in Lepidoptera, and has its point directed forwards. The pro-thorax is narrow in Butterflies, and in many species it is hardly visible above ; on the under surface it bears the first pair of legs. On the upper surface, when much developed, it is sometimes of a different colour ; thus, in many East Indian species of Papilio and Ornithoptera, it is of a bright scarlet. In such a case it is called the collar. The meso-thorax and meta- thorax are closely united in Butterflies, resembling one solid piece ; the former bears the second pair of legs and the front pair of wings ; and the latter bears the third pair of legs and the hind pair of wings. In front of the fore-wings are two hairy tufts, resting on horny scales, which are called the lappets, patagia, or tegulae. Many Butterflies are spotted with red or white on the head and thorax, and in this case the pleura is likewise spotted, and the antennas and legs are ringed with darker and paler, the under surface of the antennae and especially the tip of the club, and also the orbits, being likewise paler. In some Moths which spin cocoons, a strong spine may be seen at the base of the wings beneath, which the insects use in making their way out. The legs, as in other insects, are composed of the usual five xl Lloyd's natural history. parts, — the cox-re ; the trochanters ; the femora, or thighs ; the tibiae, or shanks ; and the tarsi, or feet. The last three are the most important to notice in Lepidoptera. The tarsi are normally five-jointed, but in many Nymphalidce, &c, the front-legs are rudimentary in one, or both, sexes, but especially in the males, and in such cases the tarsi may be reduced to a single joint, or are occasionally even absent. The tibia? are generally provided with a pair of spines at the ex- tremity, and frequently in the middle also. The tarsi, when fully developed, terminate in a pair of claws, which are bifid (Plate I., fig. 13) in many Butterflies, as, for instance, in the Pieridiz. In the groups which have the front legs more or less aborted in one or both sexes, the first stage is the disappearance of one or both of the tarsal claws. In some Moths {Hepialidcv, «S:c.), the hind pair of legs are imperfectly developed in the males. The legs are sometimes naked, and sometimes covered with short or long hairs, occasionally almost spinose. In some Moths there is a large fan-like tuft of hair on the legs of the males. The legs are usually concolorous with the body, whether hairy or not. Sometimes they are of a different colour ; in Lar- inopoda, a white African genus of Lycanidce, the legs are always reddish or tawny. When the antennae are ringed with black and white, the legs are generally ringed or spotted with white too, especially at the knees and at the joints of the tarsi. The legs in Butterflies are weak, and are generally only used to step circumspectly over a flower, though some Moths will shuffle along a plane surface in a manner that has gained for one of them the soubriquet of "The Mouse." The substance of the wings consists of a double membrane, permeated by branching air-tubes, generally called nervures. Their arrangement is so important for classification that it will INTRODUCTION. xli be described in a separate section. The wing-membrane itself is colourless and transparent, but is clothed with fine scales, which are easily rubbed off, if the insect is handled roughly. "The mode of painting employed to produce these rich tints may not improperly be called a kind of natural mosaic, for the colours invariably reside in the scales, which form a dense covering over the whole surface. These scales are usually of an oval or elongated form, and truncated at the tip, where they are occasionally divided into teeth ; but sometimes they are conical, linear, or triangular. A considerable number of the forms which they exhibit are represented at the top of Plate I. Fig. 2 shows the form which they sometimes assume in the fringe which surrounds the wing. They are fixed in the wing by means of a narrow pedicel, and are most commonly dis- posed in transverse rows, placed close together, and overlapping each other like the tiles of a roof. In some instances they are placed without any regular order, and in certain cases there appear to be two layers of scales on both sides of the wings. When they are rubbed off, the wing is found to consist of an elastic membrane, thin and transparent, and marked with slightly indented lines, forming a kind of groove for the in- sertion of the scales. The latter are so minute that they appear to the naked eye like particles of dust, and as they are closely placed, their numbers in a single insect are astonishingly great. Leesewentock counted upwards of 400,000 on the wings of the Silk-Moth, an insect not above one-fourth of the size of some of our native Butterflies. But how much inferior must this number be to that necessary to form a covering to some foreign Butterflies, the wings of which expand upwards of half a foot ; or certain species of Moths, some of which, such as the Atlas-Moth of the East, or the Great Owl-Moth of Brazil, some- times measure nearly a foot across the wings ? A modern mo- xlii .Lloyd's natural history. saic pattern may contain 870 tesseruke, in separate pieces, in one square inch of surface; but the same extent of a Butterfly's wing sometimes consists of no fewer than 100,736 !" {Duncan.) In addition to the ordinary scales, the males of many Butter- flies possess special additional scales, smaller than the others, which have been called plumules, battledore-scales, or andro- conia. Sometimes they are scattered among, and hidden under, the ordinary scales, but they are frequently placed in masses on a particular part of the wing, and covered by large overlapping scales. They are generally colourless, but some- times black or brown. Not unfrequently they are concealed in a pocket or fold of the wing. They are generally longer and softer than the ordinary scales, and evidently serve as out- lets for scent glands in the tissue of the wing.* The scales are considered to be modified hairs, and consist of double-walled closed sacs, which afterwards flatten out, and are striated. The colour of the wings of the insect is partly due to pigment contained in these sacs, and partly, especially in the case of shot or iridescent tints, to the refraction of light from the striated scales of the wing. In many Butterflies and Moths, more or less of the wing, from a few small spots, to the whole surface except the borders, is colourless. This is the case in our Bee Hawk-Moths, and Clear-wing Moths ; but though only one genus of European Butterflies (Carcharodus) exhibits even as much as a few trans- parent spots on the wings, many South American genera of different groups {Ithomia, He/ara, Zeonia, &c.) have the wings as colourless as in our Clear-wing Moths. But in the case of the Bee Hawk-Moths, and probably of many other transparent- winged Lepidoptera, the insect, on emerging from the pupa, is slightly clothed with loose scales over the transparent part of the wings, which soon rub off. * See Thomas, "American Naturalist," vol. 27, p. 101S (Novem- ber, 1893). INTRODUCTION. xliii Scales are not the only covering of the wings of Lepidoptera. The edges of the wings in most cases are bordered with a row of short hairs, sometimes of a different colour to the rest of the wing, especially between the nervures. These are called the fringes or cilia of the wings, and in many of the smaller Moths, especially those allied to the Clothes Moths, they are very long. More or lessof the baseof thewingsof Butterflies is often covered with long hair ; and in many of the larger foreign Butterflies the inner margin of the hind-wings forms a long deep fold, filled with fluffy hair. But apart from this, the inner-margin of the wings in Butterflies is often fringed with much longer hair than the hind-margin. The abdomen in the Lepidoptera is composed of nine seg- ments. It is frequently crested on the back, and tufted at the extremity in Moths. In Butterflies, the males are sometimes furnished with large clasping organs at the extremity, or have the power of protruding scent-tufts from the abdomen ; in the females of Moths an ovipositor is occasionally present. On the Wings and Neuration of Butterflies. The wings of insects are traversed by hollow tubes, which are technically called nervures, and which serve first as circulatory organs for the fluid which is forced through the wings on the emergence of the insect from the pupa, and thus causes their expansion and development ; and afterwards as air-tubes, and as ribs to strengthen the wings and to keep them expanded. In many insects, including some Moths, but not in Butterflies, these ribs fold together like a fan, and in beetles, &c, the ends are folded back again. These nervures, differ much in their number and arrangement, not only in different orders, but even in allied groups of the same order ; and form a valuable aid to classification. We will now proceed to give a short account of their usual arrangement in Butterflies, with the aid Lloyd's natural history. of the accompanying woodcut, which represents the neuration of Ageronia, To begin with, then, all Butterflies have four wings, two on each side. The first pair is called the fore-wings, the front wings, the anterior wings, or in Latin, as it is useful to remember, "alae antica;." The second pair are called hind- wings, or posterior wings, in Latin " aloe posticse." Many authors write " primaries " and " secondaries " as equivalent to fore- and hind-wings ; but the use of these terms ought to be abandoned, because they are m universal employment in a totally different sense in Birds. The fore-wings are generally roughly triangular in shape. The narrow end which joins on to the body is called the base; the fore-wings being attached to the sides of the meso-thorax, and the hind-wings to the side of the meta-thorax. The front edge of the wings is called the costa ; it is generally more or less strongly arched, and in Butterflies is very rare 1 )' slightly concave. In a few genera, e.g., Charaxes and Prioneris, it is serrated INTRODUCTION. xlv and ridged like a saw. At its extremity is the tip, the apex, or the anterior angle of the wing. This is often more or less angulated, sometimes being pointed, or running out into a projecting angle, or it may even be hooked ; but in many species it is rounded off. The longest portion of the wing is generally at or a little below the tip. The edge of the wing furthest from the body is called the hind-margin. Sometimes it is regularly rounded, in which case the wings are said to be entire, or it may be more or less toothed (dentated, or denticu- lated), or obliquely hollowed between the ends of each two of the nervures (sinuated). The concave spaces between the nervures are then called "incisions." On the fore-wings, the hind-margin is generally slightly curved towards the hinder angle (the anal angle as it is sometimes called, though this term is properly applied only to that of the hind-wings), but it is frequently nearly straight, or more or less convex or concave, or with angular projections ; in fact, its outline varies more in different species than that of any other part of the wing. On the hind- wings, the hind-margin is generally rounded, but is sometimes angulated once or twice, or furnished with a more or less long projection, called a tail, most frequently at the end of the upper median nervule (see below), though tails may be thrown off at any of the lower nervules, either independently or con- jointly with one at the point just mentioned. When the hind- wing is simply angulated we have called this point the " outer angle." The anal angle of the hind-wings is often rounded off, or even concave, but sometimes projects into a point, or even a tail. The inner-margin is opposite to the costa on the fore- wings and is generally nearly straight, or very slightly concave, but in some genera, especially in some of those allied to Euplcea, it is strongly concave. On the hind-wings the inner-margin lies parallel to the sides of the abdomen, and sometimes forms a kind of gutter to receive it, or is concave. xlvi Lloyd's natural history. In many species of Papilio it forms a large fold, filled with fluffy hair, frequently concealing androconia. As regards the wing-outlines, A in our figure represents the base of the wings, B the tip, or apex, and C the hinder or anal angle. The costa would run from A to B, the hind- margin from B to C, and the inner-margin from A to C. The tail on the hind-wings might be at any of the points marked d and e, but most frequently at the point marked dd, where also would be placed the outer angle in a species with angulated hind-wings. We must now give some account of the veining of the wings. In the first place, it was probably much more complicated formerly than at present in Butterflies, as it is still in some Moths. The veins which run from the base are called nervures, and all the others nervules. Sometimes they are thickened or inflated at the base, especially in the Satyrince, but more often they are apparently thickened through density of scaling along their course, as in the male of the Silver-washed Fritillary, to take the most familiar example. In many Butterflies faint lines may be noticed between the ordinary nervures, including two in the cell, and in some cases these lines, which doubtless indicate the situation of lost nervures, now atrophied, are marked by scales in such a way as to give them the appearance of being actually nervures. This is especially the case in some Pieridce with radiating markings along the nervures, chiefly on the under surface of the wings, as in our Green-veined White Butterfly. Certain Moths have a much more complicated system of neuration than Butterflies, which attains its maximum of development in the families Castniidcs, Hcpiahdcc^x\& Zeuzeridce, while some of the smaller Thteidcv, &c, have a much simpler arrangement. But in Butterflies the neuration, though varying infinitely in details, is generally arranged on a very uniform plan. INTRODUCTION. xlvii Commencing with the costa, we first find a single nervure (a) running from the base, and entering the costa. It is called the costal nervure, and differs much in length in different Butterflies. It is never branched at the extremity, but some- times, as in the genus Archofiias, in the Pieridce, the first sub- costal nervule unites with it. The costal nervure is much more strongly developed on the hind-wings than on the fore-wings; and at the base of the hind-wings it throws up a short branch in many of the larger Butterflies (not shown in our figure) which, \\ hen present, often encloses a space at the base of the wing. This nervure is called the " pre-costal nervure." Next to the costal nervure comes the sub-costal nervure, which is generally five-branched on the fore-wings (b. i, 2, 3, 4, 5). These are sometimes called branches of the sub-costal ner- vure, and sometimes sub-costal nervules. As already mentioned, the first sub-costal nervule sometimes unites with the costal nervure towards its extremity. There are generally five sub- costal nervules on the for^-wings, but in many genera of Butter- flies there are only four, and sometimes only three. The position where these nervules branch off, their curvature, and the points at which they enter the costa, or the neighbourhood of the apex of the wing, are of great importance in the classifi, cation of genera. The first two, or the first three, are often sub-parallel ; in Synchloc, the first two approximate so much that they are sometime? united in the middle. On the hind- wings the sub-costal nervure divides into two branches only. Under the sub-costal nervure is a wide open space usually extending from the base to the middle of the wing, or even further. This is called the discoidal cell {AD), and from it two nervules run to the hind-margin on the fore-wings, and one on the hind-wings. These are called radial or discoidal nervules Ice), and are distinguished as the first and second, or the upper and lower. The upper radial nervule is sometimes united to the xlviii Lloyd's natural history. sub-costal nervure at its base, so as to give it the appearance of being an additional branch of the sub-costal. In several dark- coloured species of Papilio, &c, there is an appearance of lines radiating from the base in the cell ; but this is delusive, and only one Butterfly is known to me with the radial nervules continued as ncrvurcs through the cell to the base of the wings. This is Davidina armandi, Oberthiir, a rare and little known Pieride from China and Thibet. On the hind-wings there is only one radial nervule; but some authois consider the sub-costal nervure of the hind-wings to be unbranched, and call the second branch {b. 2. of our figure) the upper radial instead of the second sub-costal nervule. In most Butterflies the cell is closed by small cross-nervures called disco cellular nervules (g. 1, g. 2), but in the Nymphaliii(z and Morphine the lower disco-cellular nervule is either slender and rudimentary, a; in our figure, or entirely wanting. In the latter case the cell is said to be open. The cell is more fre- quently open in the hind-wings, but very commonly in the fore-wings also. The space between the cell and the hind- margi.i is called the disc of the wing. In the Brassolince there is a small additional cell above the base of the discoidal cell of the hind-wings, called the pre-costal cell. Below the discoidal cell runs the median nervure, which is always three-branched {d, d, d). In England the median nervules (or branches of the median nervure) are generally counted from above downwards ; but as they are thrown off in succession from below, it would appear more correct to count them from below upwards, as is generally done by the German lepidopterists. In order to avoid any ambiguity, it is perhaps better to call them the upper, lower and middle median nervules. In many Nymphalince, there is a short branch thrown off down- wards from the median nervure near its base, which Schatz and Rober call the " spur." When it is continued downwards to INTRODUCTION. \li\ ths sub-median nervure, so as to enclose a space, it is called the interno-median nervule. Below the median nervure runs the sub-median nervure (e) which is never branched. Below this again, is the internal nervure (/), which is generally very short, or wanting on the fore-wings. When present, it may either run to the inner margin near the base, or may unite almost immediately with the sub- median, giving the sub median the appearance of being forked at the base. On the hind-wings it is generally fairly well developed; and although it i; absent in the Papitionidce, in the Pieridce it is generally almost as long as the sub-median nervure; and indeed, in many species, marked like our Green- veined Whites, a line of colour runs down between these nervures, giving the insects the appearance of possessing three sub-median nervines instead of two. If the term "internal nervure" was not in general use, it would perhaps be better to call these nervures the upper and lower sub-median nervures. The presence of the internal nervure on the hind-wings of the Pieridce, contrasted with its total absence in thePci/>i/io/iidi€, and combined with other equally constant and important characters which will be mentioned in their place, seems to indicate that these two groups are sufficiently distinct to be treated as families, instead of as sub-families, as is usually the case. On Collecting Butterflies and Moths. The most useful implement for collecting Butterflies and Moths on the wing is the ring-net. It is a ring of iron, jointed so that it can be folded up, and put into the pocket when not in use. It is made to screw on to the end of an ordinary walking- stick. Neither the ring nor the net should be heavier than needful to give a proper balance in the hand. The ring should be about a foot broad, and the net should be made of green gauze, or some similar material. It should be somewhat tapering, but rounded at the end, not square or pointed, for it 4 1 Lloyd's natural history. should contain no corners ; and it should be long enough to be lapped round the stick with a jerk, when used, to prevent the Butterfly from escaping. Of course, a much simpler instru- ment may be made to answer the purpose, and even a ring of willow-twigs tied between a forked stick might serve as the framework of a net, when nothing else is available. Although a Butterfly-net much resembles a fisherman's landing-net, yet nothing could be more unsuited to the purpose than the latter, even if the string net should be replaced with one of green gauze. It would be found far too clumsy and inconvenient in practice ; the ring would be too small, and the weight would be all at one end. Some collectors prefer what it called the umbrella-net — a net of green gauze made to slide up and down a stick, and fitting into an umbrella-case when not in use. But this, though use- ful for many purposes, such as sweeping grass or bushes, or for beating caterpillars into, is rather too short for ordinary collect- ing, and the stick through the middle is another objection. The long net used by the old collectors for catching the Purple Emperor (a net on a pole twenty or thirty feet long) is now rarely used. If necessary, one can be improvised from a sapling ; but it is now found more advantageous to lure high- flying insects to the ground with carrion, or some similar bait. It is hard work to run down a Butterfly, and, in general, it is unnecessary. Some have a slow flight and settle frequently on flowers, and many of those which fly rapidly have a habit of constantly returning to the same spot. If the ground is suffi- ciently open to allow of following up a Butterfly, it is almost sure to settle sooner or later. Many Moths may be caught on flowers, especially at dusk ; but a few, such as the Humming- Bird Hawk-Moth, feed on the wing, and are capable of very rapid flight, especially if alarmed. Almost the only means of catching it is to bring the net up very gently as near the insect INTRODUCTION. U as possible without scaring it, and then to strike suddenly. Even this Moth, however, will sometimes settle on a wall, a stump on a bank under a hedge, or in some other situation where its colour protects it ; but it is rare to meet with it, except on the wing. Many Moths fly in the daytime in meadows, &c, like Butterflies, or may be dislodged from their resting-places by beating hedges and bushes on the side opposite to the wind. On dull days, or at dusk, Butterflies may occasionally be started in a similar manner, or they may be found asleep on grass-stems, &c. Butterflies will settle on leaves as well as on flowers, or on the ground, or on tree-trunks. In the last case they are very difficult to catch, as it is not easy to strike at them in such a manner that they cannot readily elude the net. Many Butterflies will settle in damp places to imbibe the moisture, or on fruit, and others will settle on dung or carrion. A great many of the night-flying Moths, even including the largest species, may be found sitting on tree-trunks in the early part of the day ; later on, they generally seek a more retired resting-place. Others may be captured by painting tree-trunks, &c, with a sweet mixture, and visiting the trees with a lantern after dark. This mode of collecting is called " sugaring," and the substance commonly used is a mixture of coarse brown sugar boiled in beer to a sufficient consistency to adhere to the trees, and flavoured with a few drops of rum. Apple-flavouring has also been found very attractive. Butterflies, and slender-bodied Moths, may be killed by a pinch under the thorax ; but unless very carefully done, this is liable to injure the specimens, especially if they are required to show the under surface and legs ; and many collectors use a bottle partly filled with chopped laurel-leaves, or charged with cyanide of potassium, or carry a small bottle of chloroform with them. Full particulars on all these points may be found in Knaggs' " Lepidopterist's Guide," a useful little manual L) 2 hi Lloyd's natural history. which goes thoroughly into all the minutiae of collecting, pre- serving, breeding, &c. Poisons, however, are not always easily obtained ; and cyanide sometimes discolours the insects. When the insect is killed, it is taken carefully between the finger and thumb, and a pin is passed through the centre of the thorax. The pins used for insects are long, slender, and elastic, with small heads ; and " entomological pins " can be purchased of any dealer in objects of natural history. The pin used should always be proportionate to the size of the insect, and in the case of very small Moths, the fine pins with which they are transfixed are frequently mounted on small oblong stages of pith, through the other end of which a larger pin is passed. Insects pinned in the field are put into small wooden boxes, lined with cork, and carried in the pocket ; but many collec- tors prefer to use chip boxes, in which Moths and the smaller Butterflies can be carried home alive. Only one specimen must be put into each box, and the larger and more active species must be killed at once, as they would knock themselves to pieces, if thus imprisoned. Moths asleep on the trunks of srees may very often be pushed into a chip box with the help of the lid, and secured at once. It is necessary to be very particular to keep full boxes in one pocket, and empty ones in another. Collectors abroad generally put their captures into papers folded so as to resemble a triangular envelope, by doubling the lower end of an oblong piece of paper across one side, after which the end can be turned down to close it. Most of the insects received from tropical countries are sent home in this way ; but the legs and antennas are liable to be damaged. Whenever possible, it is better to set insects before they become stiff ; but if they are stiff, or are received unset, they can easily be relaxed by putting them into a closed vessel INTRODUCTION. liii with a layer of damp sand at the bottom, for a few hours or days. They must, however, be watched, and set as soon as they are sufficiently limp. If not quite relaxed, the wings will be liable to break, or to slip out of position afterwards ; but if left too long in the relaxing jar, the insects will become rotten or mouldy. Setting-boards are made of wood, with a groove down the middle, lined with cork, and proportioned in depth to the height at which it is proposed to set the insect. The sides are also covered with cork, but this is unnecessary when insects are set with threads. According to the old English fashion of setting, the groove was very shallow, and the sides of the setting-board were sloping, so that the insect was close to the paper of the cabinet, and the wings sloped over, and nearly touched it, on each side. But many collectors now prefer the Continental method, in which the insect is raised half an inch or more from the surface of the drawer, and the wings are spread out quite flat on each side. In setting an insect, the pin is fixed in the centre of the groove, and the wings, antennae, and legs are placed in as natural a position as possible, with the aid of a needle, great care being taken not to pierce or tear the wings, or to break the antennce. They are then secured in their places by " braces," or long tapering- strips of paper or cardboard, with pins thrust through the broader end ; or a thread may be wound over the wings, from end to end of the setting-board. This, however, requires both neatness and practice to do it well, or it is liable to rub off the scales in lines. Insects are generally kept in store-boxes or cabinets. Store boxes may be of any convenient size, and are made like back- gammon boards, and corked within on both sides. Cabinets are made to contain any required number of drawers, arranged in a single or double tier, and it is of great inportance that all liv LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. the drawers, at least in the same cabinet, should be made interchangeable. The drawers are made with a side partition to contain camphor, and are provided with tight-fitting glass lids, to exclude air and dust. The drawers are lined with cork, and are covered with white or neutral-tinted paper. The specimens are then arranged in the cabinet in rows, separated by pencil lines, black threads, or narrow slips of coloured paper. The name of the genus is placed above them, and that of the species, written or printed smaller, below. At least four specimens of each species are required, to show the upper and under surfaces of both sexes ; but it is better to have more, as a row gives a much better idea of a species than a single specimen of each sex, and as many varieties should be added as can be obtained. Light bleaches insects ; and if no camphor is kept with them, they are liable to be destroyed by mites, &c. ; if, how- ever, mites should get into the collection, which is generally first shown by a little heap of dust under an infected specimen, benzole should be applied freely to the specimens attacked. It will not injure them, and will soon evaporate. Sometimes an oily substance exudes from the bodies of Moths, especially of those the larva? of which feed within the trunks of trees, such as the JLgcriidcR and Zeuzeridce. In this case, too, benzole should be poured over the specimen, or it may even be soaked in the liquid. In order to diminish the risk of grease, some collectors open the bodies of large Moths while still soft, and remove the contents of the abdomen, stuffing it afterwards with cotton-wool. Twenty years ago the formation of a collection of foreign Butterflies and Moths was a matter of great difficulty and ex- pense. Of late years, however, they have been brought over in such quantities that the market has been completly glutted with them ; and though fine and rare Butterflies from little- INTRODUCTION. l v visited localities will always fetch good prices (one of the rarer species of Ornithoptera^zs, sold for ^15 at an auction a short time since), yet many Butterflies can now be bought for fewer shillings than they would have fetched pounds a few years ago. Consequently, a collector in London could easily bring together a very fair collection, if he set about it judiciously, at a comparatively small cost, even if he made it a rule not to pay a higher price than, say, a shilling a specimen. Undoubtedly the cheapest way of buying Butterflies is to buy miscellaneous lots at an auction, especially lots in papers. They are easily relaxed afterwards, and though some of the specimens will be bad, there will probably be enough good ones among them to be worth the money paid for them, at any rate by a beginner. But specimens without antennae, or with the wings torn, should be avoided as far as possible, both on the ground of appear- ance and of value. If, however, they are needed for anatomical or microscopic purposes, such as the study of the legs or scales, it is different. And it is well to denude a specimen of each species which can be spared, of scales on one side of the wings, to illustrate the neuration, preserving the other half intact, in order to ensure the absolutely current indentification of the species. Insects which are most eagerly sought after, and which are most difficult to obtain, at least at a reasonable price, are rare British (or so-called British) specimens, especially the extinct fen insects, varieties of indigenous species, and insects from Central Asia, the less visited islands of the Pacific (especially the fine Ornithopterce, many of which are confined to a single small island), and the finer and rarer Butterflies of the west of Tropical America, such as various species of Morpho, Agrias, &c, from Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. There are some countries and islands rarely visited by collectors, because they do not produce enough species to make it worth lvi Lloyd's natural history. while, as the insects found there are not handsome enough to command a correspondingly high price. Yet they furnish many interesting species, which are ordinarily difficult to obtain. Such countries are Chili, the Canaries, Madeira, and New Zealand. But in the case of some of these localities, as also in others, the help of friends abroad may sometimes be use- ful. On the Geographical Distribution of Butterflies. Butterflies are distributed over the surface of the earth in very unequal proportions, and are most numerous where the vegetation is most varied. As a general rule, in Europe and Asia they are most numerous along the great ranges of moun- tains in the warmer countries, thinning rapidly both north and south, and towards the west. The regions of Geographical Distribution in use by most recent Zoologists are those proposed by Dr. P. L. Sclater in his paper on the Geographical Distribution of the Class Aves.* I subsequently published a paper on the Geographical Dis- tribution of Diurnal Lepidoptera,t following the same system ; and it was also adopted by Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace in his important work on the Zoological Distribution of Animals, though he suggested a division of each of the large regions into four sub-regions. The provinces adopted by Dr. Sclater are, roughly, as follows : /. Pahvarctic Region. Includes Europe, the Mediterranean Region, North Africa to the Sahara, and Asia, except India south of the Himalayas, South China, and islands south of Japan. * Journal of the Linnean Society of London, Zoology, vol. ii., pp. 130- 1 15-" + Ibid., vol. xi. pp. 431-439- INTRODUCTION. lvii II Ethiopian Region. Africa, south of the Sahara, and the adjacent islands. ///. Indian, or Indo- Malayan Region. India, south of the Himalayas, South China, the Malay Penin- sula, and the Philippines, Formosa, Ceylon, Borneo, Java, Sumatra, &c. IV. Australian, or Austro-Malayan Region. Celehes (?), the Moluccas, Papua and the Papuan Islands, Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, and the Pacific Islands. V. Ne arctic Region. Greenland and North America to centre of Mexico. VI. Neotropical Region. Southern Mexico, Central and South America, West Indies, &c. I. PAL^ARCTIC REGION AND V. NEARCTIC REGION. The Nearctic Region is only artificially separated from the Palrearctic Region and presents no feature of importance beyond the presence of a few stragglers from the Neotropical Fauna, and it should be united to the Palrearctic Region. Our British genera of Butterflies, with the exception of I.iinenitis, Apatura, Picris, Papilio, and some genera of Hes- periidec extend little, if at all, beyond the limits of this united region. Among other characteristic genera which are not British, but are likewise almost exclusively confined within its limits, are CEneis and Parnassius (alpine oi» circumpolar). Triphysa (Central Europe and Asia), Thestor, Iceosopis, Zeg/is, Hypermnestra, Doritis, and Thais (South Europe or Western Asia), Mesapia (Himalayas), and Sericinus (North China). In Europe the Alpine ranges from the Balkans to the Pyrenees are richest in species, about 200 of the 300 European Iviii Lloyd's natural history. Butterflies being found in their neighbourhood. But north and south the species thin out very rapidly, especially to the north-west. The mountains of Great Britain, South Spain, and South Italy produce hardly any truly alpine species ; and many of our familiar Central European species become moun- tain insects in the Sierra Nevada. Scandinavia is almost as rich in species of Butterflies as Southern Spain ; and both countries produce nearly twice as many species as Great Britain, which has not only the disadvantage of being a north- western country, but is also an island. Great Britain produces less than seventy species of Butterflies, and there are many localities, even in North France and Germany, which would produce nearly as many species within the radius of a few miles. On the south coast of the Mediterranean the number of species is still further reduced, for many species do not cross the sea. The extreme North is not without Butterflies, many species being met with in Labrador, Lapland, &c. ; and even in Greenland species of CEneis, Brenthis, Polyommatus, and Colias have been met with almost as far north as our explorers have yet penetrated. But so far as is known, no in- digenous Butterfly is found in Iceland. In Europe and the Mediterranean District three sub-regions can be identified : the Central European, the Alpine and Arctic, and the Central Steppe- Faunas. The last extends from the Himalayas through Western and Central Asia, and alone; the southern coast of the Mediterranean to the Canaries; and here it may be mentioned that islands, though often very poor in species, are generally very rich in peculiar species or well- marked local varieties. This is well exemplified by Corsica, Sardinia, Madeira, the Canaries, and New Zealand, and to a lesser extent, even by the British Islands. Very few species of typical Indian or African genera, such as DanaiiSy Neptis, and Charaxes extend into Europe, but in INTRODUCTION. lix Eastern Asia a great many characteristic Indian forms extend as far as Japan, and, to a lesser extent, to the Amoor Region. The mountainous regions of Central Asia are remarkable for the number and beauty of the species of Parnassiits and Colias which they produce. Erebia is equally well represented in Europe and Asia. A few Palaearctic forms invade the adjacent provinces ; thus Colias electra, the African representative of our common C. liyale, Linn.(= C. edusa, Fabr.), is met with through- out Eastern Africa to as far as the Cape ; and the Butterflies of the South American countries between the Andes and the sea have a strong resemblance to European species, even as far south as Chili and Patagonia. North America is remarkable for the number and variety of the species of Argynnis which it pro- duces ; and the finest species of the circumpolar genus CEneis, which otherwise is rather more of an Arctic than an Alpine genus, are found in California and the Rocky Mountains. The genera Colias and Polygonia are also specially well repre- sented in North America. The greatest variety of species in the United States are found in the Western and Southern States. II. ETHIOPIAN REGION. There are two well-marked divisions in Continental Africa, south of the Sahara : the West Coast Fauna and the East Coast Fauna. The West Coast fauna is by far the richest, and extends eastwards, to the head-waters of the Nile, collec- tions from the Bahr-el-Ghazal showing but little difference from collections made at Sierra Leone, or the Cameroons. On the other hand, there is much general sameness between Butter- flies from Abyssinia, the Lake Region, Zanzibar, and Natal ; while many species occurring near the east coast are closely allied to, though generally distinct from, those of Madagascar. There is considerable resemblance, too, between the Butter- flies of Africa and India ; but the number of genera peculiar, Ix LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. or almost peculiar, to Africa is very large. Among these, we may mention Auiai/ris, Acnca (a very few representatives of which occur from India to Australia), Lachnoptera, Salami's, Pseudacrsea, Crenis, Euxanthe, Eurypliene, Ei/phczdra, Cymo- thoe, Charaxes, Palla, a cluster of genera of TyavnidiV allied to Pentila, Lipfena, Epitola, &c, Drurya, Leucochitonea, Caprona, &c. Many fine groups of Charaxes and Papilio, and the bulk of the Orange-tips of the genus Teraco/us, are also African. In East Africa and Madagascar we meet with the most beautiful of all Moths, the genus Chrysiridia. III. INDIAN REGION. This region also, though possessing some African, Palasarctic, and especially Australian affinities, is very rich in peculiar or characteristic forms. Among these are Thaumantias, and other genera of Old World Morphine?, Cethosia, Kattima, Limenitis, Athyma, Neptis, Euthalia, Iferda, Da/dorix, Lip/iyra, Prio?ieris, De/ras, Ltptocirais, &c. Some of these genera, as well as the Danaintr. and Elymniina generally, are almost equally well represented in the Australian Region. In On/if/wpfera, tha yellow species, including O. magclhimis, the most wonderful of all, which is confined to the Philippines, are found within the Indian Region, but the only green species belonging to it is O. I>rookea?ia, which is found in Malacca, Borneo, and Sumatra, and is the typical representative of an aberrant group. But, as in Europe, the mountainous regions of India are far richer in species than the plains. IV. AUSTRALIAN REGION. This region presents us with a large number of small genera of restricted range, and with many remarkable forms oiPapilio and other genera found also in the Indian region. We may mention as characteristic forms : Ideopsis, Tellervo, Xenica (Australia), Tenaris, Hypolimnas (also represented in other INTRODUCTION. lxi regions), Apaturina (Amboina), Mynes, Pro t hoe, Hypochrysops, Ogyris, Trapezites (Australia), and Hesjerilla (Australia). The great Priamus group of Ornitliopicra, with its green, blue, and golden-yellow species, is entirely confined to this region, which, nevertheless, is rather poor in Butterflies, especially South Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand, though these countries are very rich in remarkable genera of Moths. V. NEARCTIC REGION. See Palaarctic Region {supra). VI. NEOTROPICAL REGION. It is no exaggeration to say that more than half the known Butterflies come from the Neotropical Region. The whole of Mexico should probably be included in this region, but hardly Cuba, which has very strong affinities with Florida. Many of the species of the remaining larger West Indian islands, except those generally met with throughout Tropical America, have a peculiar character of their own, ex- cept Trinidad, which is zoologically part of Venezuela. Whole sub-families or even families of Butterflies are almost peculiar to Tropical America, such as the Ithomiince, Brassolincc, Heli- coniina, Lemoniida (except the Libythei/ue and a very few Nemeobiince), and a very large proportion of the Hesperiidte, &c. Among a few of the more characteristic genera not in- cluded in the groups already mentioned we may notice, Lymanopoda, Pronophila, Corades, Morpho, Cethosia, Diane, Clothilda, Cybdelis, Catonephele, Dynamine, Catagramma, Ageronia, Prepona, Megalura, Adelpha, Agrias, Ancea, Pereute, Archonias, Hesperocharis, Dismorphia, Perrhybris, Daptoneura, Euryades, and whole sections of Apatura, Papilio, and other wide-ranging genera. The Equatorial Regions, and especially Tropical America, 1X11 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. furnish an exception to the rule that mountainous regions are the richest in Butterflies. The marvellous exuberance and variety of the vegetation is such as to counterbalance the influence of mountains in stimulating variety ; and the great river-valleys of South America are probably richer in species of Butterflies than any other part of the globe. But in the south, towards Buenos Aires and Chili, the number of species diminishes very rapidly, till it falls below the average Euro- pean standard ; and as we approach the extreme south of the Continent it is probable that the number of Butterflies dwindles even below the productiveness of Greenland. It is a mistake to suppose that the Tropics are always rich in Butterflies, or that all tropical Butterflies are beautiful. In proportion to the productiveness of a country in a state of nature, is often its unproductiveness when cleared and cul- tivated. Not only are thousands of tropical Butterflies as small and dull-coloured as the most inconspicuous of our own, but the Indian representatives of European or Japanese species are often much inferior to the latter in both size and beauty. On the Hadits of East Indian Insects, especially Lepidoptera. The following interesting paper, by the well-known Dutch collector, M. C. Piepers, was published in the " Proceedings of the Dutch Entomological Society," vol. 19. It is of so much interest that, by the kind permission of Mr. T. P. New man, I am glad to place it on record in a more permanent form, by reprinting here my English translation, which appeared in the "Entomologist" for November, 1S75. — The footnotes are my own. — (W. F. K.) " When I collected our indigenous Butterflies in the neigh- bourhood of Arnhem many years ago, I observed that several INTRODUCTION. Ixiii of the largest and finest species frequented the neighbour- hood of clear running water. I considered the brooks on the estate of Mariendaal a good hunting ground, for I had already found so many fine specimens there that I always directed my steps thither again, sure that sooner or later I should again make some good capture. " When, ten years later, I again took to the Butterfly-net in the East Indian islands, the same thing happened to me there also, only, as one who is accustomed to tropical climates would expect to find, on a much larger scale than in tem- perate regions. In these islands, where the clear mountain streams rush foaming over masses of rock, especially where the rivers flow swiftest and purest, down waterfalls, or near water broken by irregularities of the bed, the haunts of the great Butterflies are to be found, and there can one feel sure, when there is no want of sunshine, of seeing oneself sur- rounded by many forms of these children of the sun, whose number and beautiful colours would amaze the Northern collector. I say amaze, but his eye and mind would alike be ravished with the possession of the beauties of Nature, for nowhere does tropical nature show itself more dazzling than here, where in the twilight formed by the over-arching of the incredibly luxuriant tropical vegetation, due to the heat and damp, the mountain stream, in the fierce glare of the sun, rushes swiftly down like a broad shining silver streak, breaking through the darker hues of the bank, foaming and dashing spray over every rock in its path, which is covered at every turn with drops of water illumined by the sun into glittering jewels ; while above and between, in perfect harmony with that life, splendour, and beauty of colour, the richly orna- mented flying flowers, which we call Butterflies, flit to and fro. " Why do we find Butterflies prefer such places ? It is, per- haps, because they are, if I may so express it, of a thirsty lxiv Lloyd's natural history. nature, and this although they prefer the very hottest sunshine, and even seem to find it so necessary that, if the sun is only clouded over for a minute, they settle as soon as possible ; and if the sun should not shine — in the case of some individuals even if it should not shine very strongly — they never leave their hiding-place the whole day. I have seen some striking examples of this, one of which has, I think, never been recorded, and seems at first sight altogether to conflict with the idea that one is accustomed to form of the habits of Butterflies. Even in the Netherlands we may occasionally see Butterflies alight on damp sand, on which the sun is shining, to suck up moisture from the ground ; but if, in the East Indian Islands, we walk along the sandy or gravelly bank of a mountain stream, or along the bed of a nearly dry stream, composed of similar materials, dur- ing the hottest part of the day, we shall disturb Butterflies at almost every step, especially Papilionidce and Pieridce, which sit there on the damp ground to refresh themselves with visible pleasure, but with wings closed so that they are scarcely dis- cernible ; and you suddenly see swarms of such Butterflies flut- tering up into the air from before your feet. I was once travelling in South-west Celebes, when my companion suddenly exclaimed as we were crossing a nearly dry brook, ' Oh, look, what a oeautiful flower !' And on looking where he pointed, I saw in the bed cf the stream amongst the damp gravel, a beautiful orange-coloured flower with a white centre, about ten centi- metres in diameter. The strangeness of the occurrence led me to step nearer in order to observe it more closely, when what did I see? The flower consisted of two concentric rings of Butterflies {Callidryas scylla, Linn.) which had closed their wings, which are yellow and orange beneath, and were busily sucking up the moisture from the damp sand, and thus repre- sented in the most closely deceptive manner the petals of a flower. They surrounded five of another white species of INTRODUCTION. lxv Pieris similarly occupied, which thus seemed to form the white centre of the flower. I still remember the amazement of my travelling companion when, on my nearer approach, the whole flower dissolved into a swarm of Butterflies. '' I afterwards saw another beautiful flower of the same kind, in which the petals were composed of a number of the red Pieris zarinda, Boisd., along with some yellow and white Pierithr, in another part of South-west Celebes, in one of the above-mentioned places where Butterflies, especially Papilio- nirfce and Pieridcr, love to resort, just above the beautiful waterfall of Maros, which Wallace has described ; and I saw there at the same time something which I never saw before ot afterwards, and had never heard or read of before, for there I saw a Butterfly bathing. " While I stood on the bank of the river, which forms at this spot an apparently still and very clear pool before enter- ing the cleft in the rock from which it reappears as a foaming and thundering waterfall, a specimen of Papilio hrlenus, Linn., came flying over the water. Flying low, as is the habit of this species, it came within a short distance of me, when I saw it suddenly half close its wings, and dive down close beside me, so that the whole body and about a third of the wings, which slanted upwards, were immersed ; it then raised itself again out of the water, and flew away. We cannot require stronger proof of the necessity of moisture to an insect which seems so little fitted for contact with water. " Just as some plants in the East Indies choose the dryest localities parched up by the burning sun, so do some Butter- flies select similar spots, such, for instance, as Jiinonia orithya, Linn., and without needing rest, enjoy settling on the scorch- ing hot sand. And like other plants which choose very damp and deeply-shaded localities in the forest, where no ray of sun- light can penetrate, some Satyrincz and Cher Butterflies, 4 E Ixvi Lloyd's natural history. usually of dark colour, love to haunt these dark and dripping nooks. Again, as the most beautiful and vigorous tropical vegetation is developed where the fiery heat of the sun is com- bined with great dampness, so do the largest and most brilliant butterflies delight to frequent such places, where they rejoice in the sunshine, and also find the dampness which they so much need. It is worth mentioning that among these last Butterflies this is not due, as in other insects, to the peculiarity of their habits and surroundings, but the explanation is to be found either in the food of the perfect insect, or in its care for its offspring ; so that it seems as if the nature of the larvre which live on plants growing in warm and damp places, and in which the peculiarity of the nourishment does not seem to be without influence, also remains with the perfect insect, although it is no longer useful to it. " At the same waterfall of Maros I witnessed another pro- ceeding among Butterflies, which I think worth mentioning. It is known that male Butterflies, like most other animals, fight with each other from jealousy ; but in other respects these in- sects are to be considered, as far as I know, very peaceable, and by no means quarrelsome creatures. I was, therefore, much astonished to observe the following incident : Around and over the blossoms of a flowering shrub flew several Butter- flies, Precis iphita, Linn., and some Pieridcc, when a Butter- fly of gigantic size in comparison with them {Ornithoptera remits^ Cramer) came flying apparently with the object of sharing their repast. Whether the others were undesirous of the company of a guest among them whose appetite would be enormous, or not, it is certain that I saw them attack the O. remus, drive it away, and pursue it for a short distance, till it was evident that it had really taken to flight, when they returned to their flowers. I have often seen Swallows and other small birds drive away and pursue birds of prey which showed themselves INTRODUCTION. lxvii in the neighbourhood of their nests, in a precisely similar manner : they fly above the great enemy and suddenly drop down upon him, or peck him till he tires of the rapid and re- peated attacks (against which his size and consequent lesser rapidity of flight hinder him from defending himself), and is forced to seek safety in flight, when his little enemies do not neglect to pursue him for a short distance. This reminds me that I have also read of similar attacks of Humming-birds upon American Sphinges, arising from jealousy about their food ; but in the present instance, the assailants and victors were not birds provided with sharp-pointed beaks, but were apparently defenceless Butterflies.* " Is it then, perhaps, throughout the insect world, " everyone for himself" ; and are so many of the lovely winged beautifully clothed creatures, apparently so mild and defenceless, really vicious ? It cannot be denied that this very rational behaviour leads us to think that Butterflies have more understanding than is generally supposed. I think the following incident will show that they are not deficient in memory. One even- ing I saw, in the open verandah of the Harmonic Society, at Manghasar, a specimen of a Butterfly which is very common there, Precis iphita, Linn. Notwithstanding the very strong illumination, this little creature remained sitting quietly in the same place on the ceiling during the whole evening. When I came to the Society next day I did not see it, but in the even- ing it was again sitting quietly in the same place. And as civilisation has not advanced so far in Manghasar that it is there considered necessary mercilessly to destroy or drive away every harmless creature which ventures into or near a human dwelling, I had the pleasure of admiring the memory of this P. iphita for six days. It was not to be found in the * Some of the small European Lycanidce will drive away larger Butter- flies, which approach their favourite resting-places, in a similar manner. E 2 Lxviii LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. daytime, and was then probably absent on business ; but every evening for six consecutive evenings, I found it return faithfully to the same sleeping-place. Then some accident probably befel it, for I never saw any trace of it again. " I do not know whether all Butterflies return to the same sleeping-place so regularly, but I have the following observa- tions to record on the sleeping-places of the Lyccenida and of the Micro-Lepidoptera. When you go into an Indian forest at daybreak, while the grass and low-growing plants are still quite wet with the night's dew, you see Micro-Lepidoptera sitting everywhere on the tops of the plants. As soon as the rays of the sun begin to make themselves felt, which quickly happens, and dry up the plants, the little animals creep slowly down the stalks and hide themselves in the moss and among the roots of the plants to pass their day's sleep in stillness and darkness. An hour after sunrise there is not a trace of them to be seen. The Lycccnida, however, which are day-fliers, do just the oppo- site at this time. As soon as the sun begins to make itself well felt, they creep slowly up along the stalks of the low plants ; and when they have basked for a long time on the top in the warm sunlight, they fly away. The influence of the warmth of the sun on the flight of Butterflies may also be noticed from the circumstance that in the Netherlands very few Butterflies are seen on the wing before eight o'clock in the morning, even during the longest summer days ; and those which love great heat, such for instance as the Lycczitido?, do not ap- pear in daylight till some time later; whereas in the East Indies the Butterfly world is already in full movement by a good hour after sunrise.* "When Linnaeus made his classification of animals, he estab- lished among Lepidoptera a class of twilight-fliers, or Crepuscu- * On dull days, or in the evening, I have often seen Polyemmatus agon sitting asleep in numbers on grass and rushes. INTRODUCTION. lxix /aria. Independently of the fact that other and better princi- ples of classification have subsequently been employed, it was soon observed that the so-called twilight -flyers are really true Night-Moths, which fly during the whole night, and not at morning and evening twilight only. But in the East Indies we meet with true twilight-fliers, which do not belong to the genus Spfa'nx, which Linnaeus considered such, but to the great group of Rhopalocera* The sun has scarcely set, before we see everywhere, both in Java and Celebes, numbers of the common Melanitis kda, Linn., Amathusia phidippus, Linn., and Casyupa thrax, Linn., and in Celebes, Debts europa, Fabricius; but I never saw these species wandering about at night in the moonlight, or entering lighted rooms like the true Night-Moths, which are very numerous, although like the latter, they sit still and repose all day, and if disturbed only fly a little way and settle again directly. I have also seen the commonest of these Butterflies, M. kda, flying in abundance in the evening twilight ; and I once observed the same with D. europa. Moreover, I suspect from the exactly similar be- haviour of different species of Mycaksis, and of Elymnias lais Cramer, in the daytime, that these should also be classed among the twilight-fliers in Java. " In every country with which I am acquainted, it is well known that many Lepidoptera are very injurious in the larva state, but the perfect insect is considered everywhere to be harmless. I must tell the truth about this, as I have already about their gentleness, and attack their reputation on this point also. In South-west Celebes, a small white Moth, an un- described species of Sarpophaga, is one of the pests of the country. These Moths fly into lighted rooms in the evening in incredible swarms, settle upon everything, including the in- * The South American Brassoluuz (a sub-family of Nymbhalida\ are also twiliiiht-fliers. l xx LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. mates, and where they touch the naked skin they leave an in- tolerable itching behind.* Besides, they dirty the white walls of the rooms everywhere by firmly attaching to them quanti- ties of eggs covered with yellow down.f " I now turn to caterpillars. I have often been surprised that in the East Indies, where there is so great a variety of Butter- flies, so few caterpillars should be met with. My observations lead me to think that this is to be ascribed to the circumstance that probably a large portion of the Indian larvae, as is the case with some in the Temperate Zones, avoid the light and heat of the day in the ground, and only visit the plants on which they feed at night ; besides, as is also the case with tropical as com- pared with temperate plants, very few seem to be gregarious, at least I never found a great number of larvae together, ex- cept those of Bombya waringi, Teysm., a number of whose larvae I once met with on a young Fiats benjaminia, Linn.} " Among the larvae which I had an opportunity of observing I noticed the important fact, long known in Europe, that some species seem to desert the plants on which their species origi- nally fed, fur imported plants, just as in the Netherlands the larvse of Acherontia atropos, Linn., now seem to live by pre- ference on the potato-plant, which was introduced from America, and cannot be excluded from it, so we find the very common larva of the equally common Butterfly, Papilio aga- memnon, Linn., both in Batavia and South-west Celebes, * In the case of the European Processionary Caterpillars, which possess the worst urticating properties of any in this quarter of the globe, it is also said that the hairs of the Moths, which they produce, are irritating, it would be interesting to know if the larva of M. Pieper's Scirpo- p/niga are also urticating. f This looks as if the Moth was not a Scirpophaga, but one of the smaller Liparida, a family which includes many highly urticating species. t The caterpillars of several of the large Saturniida live gregariously on trees in Asia and Africa ; and those of an African genus, Anapke, of somewhat oubtful position, and its allies are also gregarious. INTRODUCTION. lxxi always feeding on the leaves of Anuria muricatii, Linn., a plant introduced from the West Indies. I also met with the larvae of Euphea midamus, Linn., feeding both on an indi- genous plant and on the oleander, which was imported from Europe as an ornamental plant ; and at Manghasar the larvae of Cyllo kda, Linn., were not uncommon on the South Ameri- can pampas grass, which I grew in my garden for horse fodder. " Among East Indian larvae I also observed the peculiar varia- tions and resemblances, perhaps partly explicable by mimicry, but always remarkable, which occur among larvae themselves. Some, apparently without any rule, which produce allied Butterflies, are very similar, while at other times those of species which resemble each other very closely (such as the European Acror.)da tride?is. Esp., and A. psi, Linn.), always exhibit great differences in their larvae ; and again other species which are very distantly related, are produced from larvae which resemble each other very closely. The larvae of the closely- allied Papilio memnon and P. polytes. Linn., differ only in size and in their food plant. The little arrow-head shaped larvae of Bombya zvari/igi, Teysm., which we have just mentioned, is exactly like a diminutive Sphinx larva, and the larvae of the widely-separated Amathusia p/iidtppus, Linn., and Lasio- campa vishnou, Guerin, though of very similar form, differ only in colour and food. Among the larvae of L. vishtiou 1 once saw something which never occurred to me at any other time ; on the whole length of the back some specimens (for this larva varies extremely in colour and markings) showed a beautiful mark which appeared like a stripe embroidered with white and yellow floss-silk, while there was an abundance of white and yellow hairs along both sides of the larva. Shortly before they changed into pupae, the white and yellow colour both of the stripes and of the long hair on the sides, changed to violet, without this being due to moulting. lxxii Lloyd's natural history. " The hairs of the larva of Miresa ?iitens, Walker, figured by Herrich-Schaffer as Setora nitens, presented a still stranger ap- pearance. When I met with this very beautiful larva it was completely covered with so-called spines. I counted eight large and twenty-four small ones. After a few days it moulted, without seeming to undergo any alteration in its external ap- pearance. A few days later it moulted again, and now I saw the spines changed into tufts of hairs, some of which resembled stiff bristles, and others were more like pencils of hair. Three days later the hairs of these bristles united again, so that they seemed to form stiff spines as before the moulting ; but three days later the hairs again divided, and the previous shape of bristles and pencils came back. After this the spiny shape did not return, but the same tufts of hair altered their shape daily, so that on one day they resembled bristles, and on another pencils ; and this continued until the larva became a pupa. " During my residence in the East Indies I busied myself chiefly with Lepidoptera, and I cannot, therefore, say much about insects of other Orders. But I cannot refrain from ob- serving, though it is nothing new, how much stronger and more conspicuous insect life appears in the tropics than in temperate climates. The annoying pertinacity of the flies, which always return, however often driven away, is known to every inhabitant of the East Indies ; and every housekeeper knows that no place of security is inaccessible to the innumer- able ants. My watch stopped one night, and when I took it to the watchmaker he took a small ant from among the wheels, which had availed itself of the narrow opening left lor the spring to work in, to squeeze itself into the watch, and taste the fine oil with which the works were lubricated. Almost every evening hundreds of small insects of all Orders find their death in every lamp ; innumerable Cokoptera fly into lighted dwellings, whose nearest relations in the Temperate Zone also INTRODUCTION. lxxiil possess wings, but very rarely use them, as well as a harmless but very troublesome Gryllotalpa, much dreaded by ladies, which much resembles Sphinx convolvuli in its reckless flight. Who has not been disturbed at supper-time in the East Indies by swarms of termites suddenly flying in and out, or still worse, by ill-smelling Orthoptera ? or the intolerable itching caused by the species of Lepidoptera mentioned above ? Who has not been compelled, by the ravages of termites in linen chest or library, to utter the socialistic wish that he had no private property ? And above all, among those who cannot always remain in the better arranged dwellings of large towns, who does not remember those never-to-be-forgotten Indian nights, in which poets and lovers might have revelled, but when wearied men who wanted sleep were plagued by blood-sucking mosquitoes, crawling ants, and other insects, as if by actual demon tormentors ? " Let me relate a single night's experience, which may serve as a small contribution to the still unknown life-history of an East-Indian insect. One night I was asleep at Batavia, think- ing myself well protected by my mosquito-curtain, when I was awakened by a noise. On waking up, I heard a buzzing as if my room was turned into a great beehive. My night-light was extinguished, probably by the insects which I heard in my room having flown into it, but a little light from a gas-lamp coming through the window showed me the outside of my white mosquito-curtain covered with insects which seemed to be some sort of wasps. Of course I had no wish to leave my place of protection, but I soon saw that my mosquito-curtain was not so well closed as I had thought, and that some of the dreaded animals had already discovered the opening left by my carelessness. The only safety now lay in a determined resolution. I suddenly tore open the curtain, and threw my pillows so that I could jump upon them and reach the door 1XX1V LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. of the room without the danger of stepping with my bare feet on the wasps, which probably covered the floor of the room, and so I got out of it. I then called to my servants to bring a lighted candle. As soon as they saw the animals they de- clared that they did not sting, and handled them without fear. Thus reassured I went back to my room, and saw that it was filled with insects which appeared to have come up as full- grown winged ants from a hole between the stones of the floor. It is clearly the habit of these ants to live in the ground in their imperfect condition, and when perfect the winged specimens fly away. They thought little of the fitness of time and place when they ruthlessly disturbed my rest. It was nearly an hour and a half before they had all flown out to a light set outside the room to attract them. About a year afterwards the same thing happened in the same room. I sent the insect to the Netherlands, to tlu Leyden Museum, and it has since been determined by Ritsema to be Doiylus klitgii, Hagen." THE BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS-ORDER LEPI- DOPTERA. These are also known as the Scale-winged Insects, and may be briefly diagnosed as follows : — Haustellate insects, imbibing their food through a haustellum or proboscis ; wings four, clothed with scales ; transformations complete ; pupa inactive, without detached cases for the sepa- rate organs (except occasionally for the proboscis). Plant feeders in all their stages. THE BUTTERFLIES -LEPIDOPTERA RHOPALOCERA. Flight diurnal, rarely, in certain tropical genera, crepuscular ; antennas long, more or less thickened at the extremity, and often knobbed, sometimes hooked beyond the knob ; front legs often imperfectly developed, especially in the males; wings without a connecting bristle, or frenulum; pupa rarely enclosed in a cocoon. Before proceeding to consider the various families and genera of Butterflies, we will briefly outline some of the more important of the various systems of classification which have been proposed, referring to the Introduction for all other necessary general information respecting Lepidoptera. Although many writers of the seventeenth and eighteenth 2 Lloyd's natural history. centuries, and even earlier, published important observations on Butterflies and Moths, the real foundation of our present classification was laid down by Linnaeus in 1758, in the tenth edition of his " Systema Naturae " (vol. i., p. 458). It is as follows : — LEPIDOPTERA. Alae IV. imbricatae squamis. Os. Linguae involuta spirali. Corpus, pilosum. Papilio. Antennae apicem versus crassiores, saepius clavato-capi- tatae. Alae (sedentis) erectae, sursumque conniventes (volatu diurno). Papiliones dividuntur in VI. phalanges. a. Equites. Alis primoribus ab angulo postico ad apicem longioribus, quam ad basin, his saepe. Antennae filiformes. — Trojani. ad Pectus maculis sanguineis (saepius nigri). — Achivi. Pectore memento, ocello ad angulum ani. — — Alis absque fasciis. — ■ — Alis fasciatis. b. Heliconii. Alis angustis integerrimis striatis ; primoribus ob- longis ; posticis brevissimis. c. Danai. Alis integerrimis. Candidi. Alis albidis. Festivi. Alis variegatis. ./. Nymphales. Alis denticulatis. Gemmati. Alis ocellatis. Ocellis in alis omnibus. — — — primoribus. — — — posticis. Phalerati. Alis caecis absque ocellis. THE BUTTERFLIES. e. Plebeii parvi. Larva soepius contracta. Rurales. Alis maculis obscurioribus. Urbicolae. Alis saepius maculis pellucidis. / Barbari. Corollarii in loco adjecti, ad ordinem non relati. Many writers argue that our nomenclature should commence from the twelfth edition of Linnaeus' "Systema Naturae" (1767)* and not the tenth; but the Linnean system was fully es- tablished in the tenth edition, and was adopted by most authors of repute between 1758 and 1767. No alterations of much im- portance were made in the twelfth, nor can even Linnreus' own species be satisfactorily identified without reference to works published by himself and others in the interim. Hence the tenth edition is now regarded by most entomologists as their starting- point. With respect to Butterflies, the only alterations of im- portance in the twelfth edition are the suppression of the section Papiliones Barbari, the species which it contained being dis- tributed among the other sections ; and the substitution of the words " srepe denudatis " for " integerrimis striatis " in the definition of the Heliconii. Fabricius afterwards gave the name Parnassii to the section indicated by the words " saepe denudatis." The Linnean genus Papilio, applied by him in his earlier works to the whole of the Lepidoptera, and in 1758 and subse- quently to the whole of the Butterflies, was soon subdivided by later authors into smaller genera, and the systems in vogue in France and Germany differed somewhat. Thus we find Ochsenheimer in 1816 arranging the European genera of * This is the rule laid down by the British Association, but as excep- tions were admitted, it is not always considered absolutely binding. The year 1766 is the date of the first volume of the " Systema " ; but the part relating to insects is dated 1767. The eleventh edition (1760) is merely & re-print of the tenth. LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. Bi/terflies as follows (" Schmettcrlinge von Europa," Band if ,:■ Melitcea. Argynnis. Euploea. Vanessa. Limenitis. Charaxcs. Apatura. Hipparchia. Lycama. Papilio. Zerynthia. Doritis. Pontia. Colias. Hecaerge. Hesperia. It will be noted that, while Linnaeus in 1758 placed the Butterflies with imperfect front legs in the middle of his ar- rangement, Ochsenheimer and many other German authors put them at the commencement of their systems. This arrange- ment hid actually been employed by Linnaeus himself in some of his earlier works. The arrangement of genera adopted by Latreille and Godart in 1819-1823 in the ninth volume of the " Encyclope'die Methodique," is as follows : — DlURNA. Papilionides. Papilio. Parnassius Thais. Colias. Pieris. Libythea. Danais. Idea. Ccthosia. Hcliconia. Acraea. Argynnis. Vanessa. Biblis. Nymphalis. Morpho. Brassolis. Eurybia. Satyrus. Erycina. Myrina. Polyommatus. Barbicornis. Hesperides. Urania. Hesperia. THE BUTTERFLIES. 5 Many authors divide the Lepidoptera into three sections, Diurna, Crepuscularia, and Nocturna, according to the times of flight of the majority of the species which they include. The Diurna correspond to the Rhopalocera, or Butterflies. We may here remark that Urania is now regarded by all entomologists as belonging to the Moths. Boisduval's system (" Species General des Lepidopteres," tome i., 1836) is more extended, and is based primarily on the mode of attachment of the pupa. Rhopalocera. Suspensi. Danaides. Succincti. Heliconides. Papilionides. Nymphalides. Tierides. Brassolides. Eumenides. Morphides. Lycaenides. Satyrides. Erycinides. Biblides. Peridromidcs. Libytheides. Involuti. Hesperides. The arrangement of families employed by Doubleday and Westwood (1846-1852) in their "Genera of Diurnal Lepidop- tera " is a modification and amplification of Boisduval's scheme. Papilionidae. Brassolidae. Pieridae. Eurytelidae. Ageronidae. Satyridae. Danaidae, Libytheidae. Heliconidae, Erycinidae. Acraeidas. Lyeaenidae. Nymphalidae. Hesperidae. Morphidae. LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. The Ageronida were raised to the rank of a distinct family through an error regarding their metamorphoses, and are now included in the Nymphalidce. The Eurytelidce (except the genus Elynmias, which is either referred to the Satyrida, or regarded as a distinct family or sub-family), and even the Morphidee, are also merged in the Nymphalid, argued that the Butterflies with imperfect front legs should be placed first in the arrangement, as being furthest removed from the Moths ; and his views have been adopted by most recent English and American Lepidopterists. Except that I re- tained the Elymniinm and Morphitue, which Bates was inclined to unite with the Nymphalince, as separate sub-families, and that one or two names are changed, the arrangement which I employed in my " Synonymic Catalogue of Diurnal Lepidop tera" (1871), is nearly the same as that of Bates : — I. Nymphalidae. II. Lemoniidae. Sub-fam. 1. Danainae. Sub-fam. 1. Libythaeinae. 2. Satyrinse. „ 2. Nemeobiina^. 3. Elymniinae. „ 3. Euselasiinas. 4. Morphine. „ 4- Lemoniince. ,, 5. Brassolinre. III. Lycaenidas. „ 6. Acraeinae. IV. Papilionidoe. 7. Heliconinae. Sub-fam. 1. Pierinas. 5. Nymphalinae. „ 2. Papilioninae. V. Hesperidai. The following summary shows the gradual increase in our knowledge of the species of Butterflies : — Species. 1758. Linnaeus ... ... ... ••• 192 1767- » 2 73 THE BUTTERFLIES. 7 Species. 1775. Fabricius ... .. ... ... 406 1793- » "47 1S23. Latreille and Godart ... ... 1S02 1852. Doubleday and Westwood... ... 3451* 1871. Kirby 7695 Since the appearance of my "Synonymic Catalogue of Diur- nal Lepidoptera " in 187 1, enormous progress has been made in the study of Butterflies, which I think I may fairly claim to be in a great measure due to the publication of the above-men- tioned work. But authors differ much in their views as to varieties and species, and a considerable number of absolute synonyms doubtless remain to be eliminated. Hence I cannot attempt to estimate the actual number of species now known to entomologists. It should, however, be remembered that while in some genera the number of known species has been far more than doubled since 187 1, in others the number has remained almost stationary. In 18S4-1888 Dr. Staudinger published his " Exotische Tagfalter," an important work in small folio, with 100 coloured plates of Butterflies. His arrangement is that of Doubleday and Westwood, omitting the families Ageronidce, EuryteZidce, and Liby thee idee. A companion volume, commenced by Dr. Schatz, and com- pleted, after his death, by Dr. Rober, appeared from 1S85 to 1S92, and included a most careful revision of all the genera of Butterflies, except the Hesperidce. This is illustrated by diagrams of the neuration of every genus, and generally of the legs, palpi, and antennae also. It is much to be wished that some enterprising publisher would venture to issue these valu- * This estimate is too high, including many species named but not de- scribed, and various duplicate entries of sexes, &c. g lloYd's Natural UIstorV. able works in English for the benefit of the numerous ento- mologists in England and other English-speaking countries, Who may not read the German language. The system of families adopted by Schatz is as follows : — A. Six perfect legs in both sexes ; pupa? attached by the tail, and a cross-band. FAM. I. PAPILIONID^E. a. Front legs with a spine on the tibiaj ; claws simple ; inner margin of the hind-wings concave, not embracing the body ; sub-median nervure of the fore-wings with a short branch at the base of the wings. FAM. II. PIERID/E. b. Front tibia? with no spine ; claws bifid ; inner margin of the hind-wings not concave, but embracing the body when at rest ; sub-median nervure not branched, but often forked at the base. B. Four perfect legs in both sexes ; front legs aborted, the tarsi in the male with but one joint, in the female generally with five ; claws absent in both sexes ; pupa suspended by the tail. FAM. III. DANAID7E. c. Larva? smooth, provided with long fleshy appendages ; submedian nervure of the fore-wings forked at the base ; front legs of female with the tarsi thickened; wing-cells closed. FAM. IV. NEOTROPID.E. d. Larvae covered with small elevations ; sub-median ner- vure of the fore-wings forked at the base ; front legs of female with long and slender tarsi ; wing-cells closed. 1'HK ntrtTEiit'LiEs. FAM. V. ACR.EID.E. e. Larvae furnished with branching spines ; sub-median ner- vure of fore-wings not forked ; median nervure not hooked at base ; palpi thick, surrounded by separate hairs ; wing-cells closed. FAM. VI. IIELICONI1D/E. /. Larva? provided with branching spines ; sub-median ner- vure of fore-wings not forked ; median nervure with a short hook at the base ; palpi compressed, with scales on the sides, and covered with hair in front ; cells closed. FAM. VII. NYMPHALID^. g. Larva? smooth or spiny ; cells of both wings, or at least of the hind-wings, open, or, if closed, with a slender rudimentary (not tubular) nervure. FAM. VIII. MORPHIDiE. h. Larva? smooth or hairy, with a forked tail ; cells of the fore-wings closed, those of the hind-wings open. FAM. IX. BRASSOLID/E. i. Larva? generally with a forked tail; hind-wings with the cells closed, and a distinct pre-costal cell. FAM. X. SATYRIDiE. j. Larva? smooth, with a forked tail; wing-cells closed; palpi compressed, set with long bristly hairs. C. Four pe;fect legs in the male; front legs aborted, with the tarsi consisting of a single joint, without claws. Six perfect legs in the female ; front legs considerably smaller than the others. F 2 10 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORV. FAM. XI. LIBYTTLEIDiE. k. Larvae smooth ; pupae suspended by the tail ; palpi very large, beak-shaped. FAM. XII. ERYCINID^E. /. Larvae various ; pupae stiffly raised, or resting on a leaf, or even suspended ; palpi normal. FAM. XIII. LYC^ENIDjE. D. Four perfect legs in the male, the front legs aborted , tarsi ending in a horny point, densely spined on the inner side. Six perfect legs in the female, the front legs smaller than the others. FAM. XIV. HESPERID/E. E. Six perfect legs in both sexes ; tibiae of the hind legs (with a few exceptions) spined ; pupae attached by threads, or enclosed in a loose cocoon. The careful study which Schatz and Rober have devoted to the Butterflies has led to much improvement in the arrange- ment of genera, though I do not agree with all their conclu- sions. In the first volume of the present work I treat of the Nymphalidtz in their broad sense, i.e., Schatz' " Section B," for I cannot ignore the many characters which seem to ally the Papilionida with the Hesperidte (" Sections A and E " of Schatz), and while adopting the sequence of families in his " Section B," I prefer to treat them as sub-families. FAMILY I. NYMPHALID.E. Egg. — Very variable in shape and texture. Larva. — Cylindrical, often hairy, or furnished with branching NYMPHALID.E. II spines ; sometimes smooth, with horns on the head, and a forked tail. Pupa. — Generally suspended by the tail, often more or less metallic ; very rarely found on the surface of the ground. Imago. — Of large or moderate size, rarely small; if slenderly formed, generally with rather long wings ; colours very varied ; wings often marked with ocellated spots, especially on the under surface. Front legs in both sexes much smaller and weaker than the others, those in the male with only one or two tarsal joints, occasionally obsolete ; those of the female usually with four or five joints. SUB-FAMILY I. DANAIN^. Egg. — Much higher than wide, leathery, radiate, with nu- merous broad flattened ribs and distinct cross-lines, reticulate over a small area at the apex. Larva. — Smooth, with long fleshy appendages, feeding chiefly on Aristolochice. Pupa. — Short, stout, often metallic. Imago. — Of large size ; basal joint of palpi short ; wings always ample, generally long, sometimes very broad and rounded, the wing-cells closed ; sub-median nervureof the fore-wings forked at the base ; wings generally entire, sometimes slightly scal- loped, but never tailed. Male with conspicuous patches of raised scales on various parts of the wings, and in many species with conspicuous anal tufts of hair; female with flattened, club- shaped tarsi. Note. — This group was divided by Mr. Moore, in the " Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London " for 1883, into a great number of genera, of which we have only space to mention a few of the most representative. Range, — The Danaince are most numerously represented \2 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. in the tropics of the Old World, but a few species inhabit America. The only species which is indigenous to Europe is Limnas chrysippus (Linn.). It is common throughout Africa and the East Indies, and its range extends to Greece. Besides this, however, the North American Anosia menippe (Hiibner),* one of the largest species of the group, and an extremely abundant insect, which migrates north to Canada, has lately spread over the whole of the Pacific Islands, and has probably now reached the mainland of Asia. When once firmly estab- lished on the Asiatic continent, its extension throughout the warmer parts of Asia and Europe and the whole of Africa can only be a question of a comparatively short time. Not only so, but many specimens have already been taken in England, and it is now regarded as almost naturalised, though it is still doubt- ful whether it will find sufficient appropriate food to enable it to establish itself permanently with us. Its larva feeds on various species of Aristolochia, called " Milk-weeds " in the United States, and most of the known larvas of the Danaince feed on Asclepias and allied plants. Habits. — As already noticed, Anosia menippe is an insect of powerful flight and migratory habits, but many Danaince have a lazy flapping flight, and are very restricted in their range, the species found in adjacent islands being often different from each other. Note.— The Danaince are remarkable for being a highly-protected group of Butterflies. They have a peculiar odour, dependent, it is believed, on the anal tufts of hair, which render them distasteful to birds ; and it has even been asserted that mites will not touch them in collections. Their in- teguments, too, are very tough, and hence, even if attacked by birds, they might easily escape fatal injury. They exhibit the phenomenon known as ' ' mimicry " to perfection ; that is to say, various other Butterflies and Moths, having no real affinity to them, resemble them so closely as to be frequently * Usually called Danaits plexippus or D. archippas ; but it is not the true P. plexippus of Linnaeus, nor the true P. archippus of Cramer. HESTIA. *3 indistinguishable on a superficial examination ; and it is believed that these species share, more or less, in the immunity from danger, of the Butterflies which they resemble. It is not uncommon for the female only of the mimicking species to resemble its model, the male being totally different. The Danaince are also remarkable for the possession of masses of raised scales on various parts of the wings of the males. In the species allied to Eufilcea these usually consist of "brands,"or long dark streaks on the fore-wings, and a large patch on the costa of the hind-wings. In those allied to Danaus they usually consist of a patch of raised scales on the disc of the hind-wings. These tufts conceal the peculiar scales formerly called "plumules," but now "androconia,"and are scent-producing organs. They are, of course, secondary sexual characters, and probably not protective, except, perhaps as a casual subsidiary function. These scaly patches are not present in the males of every species, and of late years these Butterflies have been divided into a great number of genera (which we have no space to notice in detail), according to the presence or absence of these sexual markings, combined with differences in the neuration, &c, and the number of fleshy filaments in such of the larvaj as are known. But most of these sections are at present re- garded as groups, rather than as genera, by the majority of entomologists. GENUS HESTIA. Hestia, Hubner, Verz. bek. Schmett., p. 15 (1S16); Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lepid. p. 94 (1S47); Moore, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 18S3, p. 217; Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 80 (1886). The type is : — HESTIA LVNCEA. Papilio lynceits, Drury, Illustrations of Exotic Entomology, ii., pi. 7., fig. 1 (1773). Idea lyncea, Godart, Enc. Meth., ix., p. 195, no. 2 (1819). 14 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. A Butterfly measuring six and a half inches across the fore wings, which are rather long and narrow. It is light slaty-grey, with many rows of rather large round or oval black spots. Mr. Moore considers the Bornean form to represent Drury's species, and those occurring in the neighbouring countries to be distinct. The locality given by Drury, " Island of Johanna, near Madagascar," is certainly erroneous. The genus Hestia includes the largest species of Da?iaina>, and may be recognised by its size (5 to 7 inches across the wings), its long slender antennae, which are scarcely thickened at the extremity, and its long, grey semi-diaphanous wings, with black nervures, and rows of more or less connected round or sagittate spots and stripes. The genus is confined to the Eastern Archipelago and the neighbouring portions of the Asiatic con- tinent, extending from India, the Andaman Islands, Ceylon, Burmah, and the Malay Peninsula, through the islands as far as the Philippines and New Guinea. These Butterflies have an elegant sailing flight, and they are known to the European in- habitants of the countries in which they are found as " Ghosts," " Spectres," and " Sylphs." The best known larva is that of Hestia malabarica (Moore), which is furnished with four pairs of fleshy processes. It is ringed with black and yellowish-white, and spotted with red on the belly. The food-plant has not been recorded. The known pupa? of Hestia are brown, speckled with black, and are much longer than those of the other Danaince, more resembling those of the Vanessa in shape. Mr. Moore divides the old genus Hestia into three : Nee- taria, Dalman, in Billberg, Enum. Ins., p. 76, 1820. Type, Nedaria idea, Clerck, from Amboina; Sabalassa^looxe,? .Z.S., 1883, p. 217. Type, Sabalassa eiectra, Semper, Verh. Ver. Hamburg, iii., p. 106, 1878, from the Philippines; and true Hestia of Hiibner. Type, Hestia lyncea, Drury, from Borneo. PLATE IV. 2. Ideopsiss daos IDEOPSIS. 15 Our representative of this group of genera is — ■ HESTIA IDEA. (Plate IV, Fig. I.) Papilio idea, Clerck, Icones, pi. 38, fig. 1 (1764) ; Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. (ed. xii.), i., pt. 2, p. 75s, no. 73 (1767); Cramer, Pap. Exot., iii., pi. 193, figs. A., B. (1767). Idea agelia, Godart, Encycl. Meth., ix., p. 195, no. 1 (1S19). This species is now regarded by the authors who subdivide ITesfia as the type of the genus Nedaria. It is a native of the islands of Amboina and Ceram. Our figure represents this species of half the natural size. There are so many allied forms that a detailed description cannot be given. GENUS IDEOTSIS. Ideopsis, Horsfield & Moore, Cat. Lep. Mus. E. Tnd. Comp., i., p. 333 (1857) ; Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 80 (1886). This genus derives its name from the resemblance of I. daos (Boisduval) to Hestia idea (Clerck) ; but the species of Ideopsis are smaller than those of Hestia, and have the club of the antennae more distinctly thickened. Some species of Ideopsis, however, have more pointed brown wings, with the hind-wings and the disc of the fore-wings of a slightly transparent grey or yellow. IDEOPSIS DAOS. [Plate IV, Fig. 2.) Idea daos Boisduval, Spec. Gen. Lepid., i., pi. 24, fig. 3 (1836). The true Ideopsis daos is a native of Borneo. I abstain from quoting more synonymy, as it is still uncertain whether some of the Butterflies from South China, Malacca, Sumatra, &c, which are usually referred to I. daos may not be distincj; species. j 5 Lloyd's natural history. GENUS LIMNAS. Limnas, Hiibner, Tentamen, p. i (1S10?) ; Moore, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1S83, p. 237. Type, Papilio chrysippus (Linn.), from the tropical and sub- tropical regions of the Old World. This section of the old genus Danaus much resembles Danaus plexippus (Plate v., fig. 2) in size, colour, and markings, but wants the thickened black veins so conspicuous in that species. The larva differs in having the four hinder filaments much longer, though the front pair are the longest. LIMNAS CHRYSIPHJS. Papilio chrysippus, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. x.), i., p. 47 T » n0 - Sl (1758); id., Mus. Ludov. Ulr., p. 263 (1764); Cramer, Pap. Exot., ii., pi. 118, figs. B., C. (1777) ; Hiibn., Europ. Schmett, i., figs. 678, 679 (1803). Danais chrysippus, Horsf. & Moore, Cat. Lep. E. I. Mus., i., p. 126, pi. iv., figs. 7, 7a (transf.) (1S57) ; Trim., Rhop. Afr. Austr., pp. 88, 333, pi. 1, figs. 3, 3a (transf. : 1862- 1866); id., S. Afr. Butterflies, i., p. 51 (1S87); List. Rhopal. Malay., p. 20, pi. 1, fig. 10 (1SS2); Marsh. & De Nice'ville, Butterflies Ind., i., p. 50, pi. 6, fig. 10 (18S2) ; Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 226, pi. 54 (1S83). Salatura chrysippus, Moore, Lepid. Ceylon, i., p. 7, pi. 3 (18S0: transf.). Anosia chrysippus, Semper, Reisen Philipp. Lepid., i., p. 16, pi. A, figs. 2, 2a (1886: transf.). Limnas chrysippus, Moore, Lepid. India, i., p. 36, pi. 8 (1890: transf.). Danaus chrysippus, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies & Moths, p. 26, pi. 11, fig. 5(1878). LIMNAS. 17 Var. a. Limnas alcippus. Papilioalcippus, Cram., Pap.Exot., ii., pi. 127, figs. E., F. (1777). Var. p. Limnas dorippus. Euplaa dorippus, Klug, Symbolae Physical, pi. 48, figs. 1-4 (1845). This is a reddish-coloured Butterfly, having the wings black, bordered and spotted with white. The apex of the fore-wings is broadly black, crossed by a white bar of confluent spots, near which are several smaller ones. The discoidal cells of the hind-wings are surrounded by three black spots (or four, in the male, the sexual mark resembling an additional spot). This Butterfly is common all over Africa and Southern Asia, and is likewise found in Greece. Many years ngo it appeared near Naples, having apparently been introduced, but it failed to establish itself permanently. The larva is bluish-grey, with yellow dorsal and lateral stripes, and transverse black lines. As in many allied species, the filaments are black, with the base red. The pupa is green or pink, with golden spots. Several constant forms allied to this Butterfly, with more or less white hind-wings, are met with (e.g., L. alcippus, Cramer, &c.) most commonly in Africa. Another allied form is Z. dorippus (Klug), in which the reddish-tawny ground-colour ob- literates the black and white markings towards the apex of the fore-wings. Other forms have been named Z. alcifipoides, Moore, Z. khigii, Butler, &c. Until these forms h:ive been carefully bred from the same batch of eggs we cannot posi- tively affirm that they are distinct species, or the opposite. A smaller insect, L. pet ilia (Stoll), closely allied to Z. chtysippus, is found in Australia. There is probably no insect which has so many mimics as Z. chrysippus. Among the mimics are the females of Hypolimnas 1 8 Lloyd's natural history. tnisippus (Linn.). Argynnis niphe (Linn.), Papilio cenea (Stoll), and (in both sexes) Euphczdra elea (Drury), and various species of Moths belonging to the genera Phcegorista, Alefis, &c. The closest of these mimics is the female of Hypolimnas tnisippus, which, however, can be easily recognised, inter alia, by the more festooned outline of the hind-wings and the want of the black spots in the centre. The male is a black insect, with a large bluish-white spot on each wing. The other forms to which we have alluded, D. alcippns, D. dorippus, &c, are likewise more or less mimicked by corresponding forms of other Butterflies. It is remarkable that although the female of Argynnis niphe (Linn.), a common Indian species, mimics L. chrysippus, the closely-allied Australian A. inconsians (Butler), has a female which resembles the male, notwithstanding the presence in Australia of L. petilia, a closely allied representa- tive of L. chrysippus. GENUS DANAUS. Papilio. Danaus, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. x.), pp. 458, 468(1758). Danaida, Latr., Hist. Nat. Crust. Ins., xiv., p. 108 (1S05). Danaus, Latreille, Gen. Crust. Ins., iv., p. 201 (1809). Danais, Latr., Enc. Meth., ix., pp. 10, 172 (18 19); Doubleday, Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 89 (1847) : Butler, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1866, pp. 43, 171; Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 78 (18S6). Salatura, Moore, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1883, p. 239. Linnaeus gave the names Danai candidi and Danai phalerati to the groups now known as Pierincz and Danainff, naming most of the species of the two groups after the sons and daughters of Danaus. The older authors, such as Fabricius and Esper, proposed to restrict the name to the Pierincz, in which case Pieris brassica should probably be regarded as the type; but Latreille first used the genus in a strictly generic sense under the names Danaida and Danais, specifying t»ANAUS. *9 D. plexippus as the type. It appears best to use the original Linnean form Danaus, and to associate it with male mytho- logical names, included among his Danai by Linnaeus; on the principle that a species should agree in gender with its genus. DANAUS PLEXIPPUS. {Plate V., Fig. 1.) Papilio plexippus, Linn., Syst. Nat. (cd. x.), p. 471, no. 80 (1758) ; id., Mus. Ludov. Ulr., p. 282 (1764). Danais p/exippe, Godart, Encycl. Meth., ix., p. 1S6, no. 35 (1819). Danais bkxippus, Horsf. & Moore, Cat. Lepid. E. I. C. Mus., i., p. 124, pi. 4, figs. 6, 6a (transf.) (1857). Papilio genutia, Cramer, Pap. Exot, hi., pi. 206, figs. C, D. (i779)- Danais genutia, Marsh. & De Nicev. Butterflies Ind., i., pp. 7, 52 (1882); Dist. Rhopal. Malay., p. 18, pi. 2, f. 2 (1882). Salatura genutia, Moore, Lepid. Ceyl., i., p. 6, pi. 4, fig. (18S0); id., Lepid. Ind., i., p. 45, pi. 10, figs. 1, ia-c (1890). This insect, which is the type of its genus, is a handsome Butterfly, measuring three or four inches across the wings, which are tawny, or fulvous, with black nervures, and black borders, spotted with white. The apical third of the fore- wings is black, crossed by a broad white bar, divided into spots by the nervures The head and thorax are black, dotted with white, and the abdomen is tawny, like the wings. It is a common insect in India, and is found in fields and gardens, as well as in woods. The larva is black, with white and yellow markings, and three pairs of filaments ; the pupa is bright green. Linnaeus confounded this species with the North American Anosia menippe (Hiibner), and this Butterfly is often regarded as the true Danaus pic.ippus (Linn.) ; but Linnxus describes his 2 26 Lloyd's natural history. species as having a white band on the fore-wings iike Limndi chrysippus, a character not found in any American Butterfly of this group. GENUS TIRUMALA. Tirumala, Moore, Lepid. Ceylon, i., p. 4 (*SSo); id., Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1883, p. 230. TIRUMALA LIMNIACE. {Plate V., Fig. 2.) Papilio timmacce, Cramer, Pap. Exot., i, p). 5S, figs. D., E. (i775)- Danais //V;^/'^,Godart,Encycl.Me'th., ix., p. 191, no. 49 (1S1 9); Marsh, and De Nicev., Butterflies Ind., i., p. 4, P 1 - h fl £- 3 (1882); Staud., Exot. Schmett., i., p. 49, pi. 24 (1885). Tirumala limniacce, Moore, Lepid. Ceylon, i., p. 4, pi. i, fig. 3 (1880). Tirumala limniace, Moore, Lepid. Ind., i., p. 30, pi. 6, figs. 1, 1 a, ib (1890: transf.). We have figured this common East Indian ar:d African insect as the representative of an extensive group of species (formerly placed in the genus Danaus, but now divided into several genera), which are of a brown colour, streaked and spotted with green or blue. A nearly allied species to T. limniace is the Aus- tralian Butterfly, T. hamata (Macleay), to which some authors have erroneously applied the accounts given by travellers re- specting the Bugong Moths. The Bugong Moth, however, of which the Australians make cakes, is a true Moth (Agrotis spina, Guenee), and has nothing to do with T. hamata. The larva of T. limniace is yellowish-white, or yellowish-green, with a yellow band on the sides, and two pairs of fleshy filaments, streaked with black and greenish-white ; a long pair on the PLATE V. /. Dcuians -pleodppics . Z. TirurrvaLa lumnixjuce AMAURiS. 21 third segment, and a short pair on the twelfth. The pupa is green, with scattered golden dots. GENUS AMAURIS. Amauris, Hiibner, Verz. bek. Schmett, p. 14 (1816); Moore, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1883, p. 226 ; Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 83 (1SS6); Trimen, South African Butter- flies, i., p. 56 (1887). DanaiSy Sect. 1, Doubleday, Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 89 (1847). Type Papilio niavius (Linn.), from West Africa. AMAURIS NIAVIUS. Papilio niavius, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. x.), i., p. 470, no. 76 (1788); id., Mus. Ludov. Ulr., p. 253 (1764); Clerck, Icones, pi. ^2, f. 2 (1764) ; Cramer, Pap. Exot., i., pi. 2, figs. F,G.(i 77 5). Da/iais niavia, Godart, Enc. M£th., ix., p. 182, no. 22 (1819). A large black species, over three inches in expanse, with large bluish-white sub-apical spots on the fore-wings, and a great part of the hind-wings filled up with the same colour. It is a West African insect, its South African representative {A. domiiiicaniiSy Trimen) being larger, with more extended white markings. Amauris is a genus of small extent, entirely confined to Tropical and Southern Africa. The species are of moderate size (two to four inches across the wings), and are of a rich dark brown, with white or ochreous spots. We have figured a species belonging to the closely-allied genus or sub-genus Nebroda (Moore), lately described from Matabele Land by Miss Emily M. Sharpe, and named after the barbarous but un- fortunate king of that country. It differs from the common South African N. echeria (Stoll) by the great extent of the pale central part on the hind-wings. zi Lloyd's natural history. Mr. Trimen describes the larva of N. echeria as having five pairs of divergent sub-dorsal filaments. It is black, with blue and orange longitudinal stripes. The perfect insect has a rather high, graceful, soaring flight, presumably somewhat like that of Hestia. The species of Amauris and its allies are mimicked by various species of Pa ft Mo, Hyftolimnas, &c, found in the regions which they inhabit; but these can at once be dis- tinguished from them by differences in the neuration, &c. NEBRODA LOBENGULA. (Plate VI , Fig. i.) Nebroda lobengula, E. M. Sharpe, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (6), vi., p. 34 (1890). Nearest to JV. echeria, Stoll {Amauris echeria, Kirby, Syn. Cat. Lepid., p. 8), but differing in the much greater extent of yellow on the hind-wing. There is a row of unequal yellow spots on the hind marginal border, extending to the sub median nervure. The base of the hind-wing is deep brown. The fore-wing has a moderately large yellowish spot in the middle of the discoidal cell, with a second larger oval spot between the first and second median nervules. Between the radial or discoidal nervules there are two me- dium-sized yellowish spots near the apical portion. At the apex of the fore-wing there is a row of small white spots extending to the hind margin, with four smaller white spots outside the first row of spots, placed about the middle of the fore-wing. Along the costal margin there are two white spots. The under side of the fore-wing is of a lighter brown, having all the spots plainly marked in white with the exception of the two larger spots, which are yellow. The hind-wing is similar to the fore-wing, having the yellow basal area quite as dark as on the upper bide, and the EUTLfEA. 23 spots are white, while near to the pre-costal nervure there is one small white spot. Exp., 3- 1 inches. Hab. — Matabele Land to Nyasa Land. This species has recently been obtained in Nyasa Land by Mr. H. H. Johnston, and from one of his specimens in the British Museum the figure has been taken. GENUS EUPLCEA. Euploza, Fabr. in Illiger's Mag., vi., p. 280 (1807) ; Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p" 86 (1847) > Butl., Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1866, p. 268; Moore, op. cit., 1883, p. 288 ; Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 80 (1886). Macroplcca, Butler, Journ. Linn. Soc, Zool., xiv., p. 292 (1878) ; Moore, Lepid. Ceylon, i., p. 9 (1880). The type is EUPLCEA CORUS. Papilio corns, Fabricius, Ent. Syst, iii., pt. t, p. 41, no. 122 ( J 793)- Euplcca e/i'sa, Butler, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1866, p. 270, no. 4 ; Marsh. & De NiceVille, Butterflies Ind., i., p. 72, pi. 8, fig. 14 (1882). Macroplcea elisa, Moore, Lepid. Ceylon, i., p. 9, pi. 5, fig. 2 (1880). Euploea corns, Moore, Lepid. Ind., i., p. 107, pi. 37, figs. 1, ia, ib. (1890 ; transf.). This is a large brown species from Ceylon, measuring over four inches across the wings, on which are several rows of sub-marginal white spots. The fore-wings in this genus are rather long, and the hind-margins are gradually curved on all G 24 Lloyd's natural history. the wings, so that Mr. Butler has named one of them E. semi- circulus. The species which were formerly included in Euplcea, but have lately been divided into several genera, are numerous in the Indian and Austro-Malayan Regions, but are very sparingly represented in Madagascar and the adjacent islands. They do not extend to America or Europe, nor apparently even to the mainland of Africa. Their wings are always rounded and entire, never angulated or dentated; sometimes long, but some- times so broad as to be almost round. They are generally of a brown colour, with more or less extensive white, blue, or tawny spots, and are often flushed with rich blue. The larvae much resemble those of Danaus, &c, and are similarly provided with fleshy filaments. An American writer gives an odd description of a black, white-spotted species from New Guinea (E.papuauj, Reakirt). On the fore-wings there is " a submarginal row of seven chalk- white spots, .... there are three minute dots, near the margin, obliquely below the fourth, fifth, and sixth spots respect- fully ! " The rows of white or bluish spots above alluded to are very frequent in this genus, and are sometimes arranged in rows parallel to the hind margin, and sometimes in an irregular circle about the middle of the wings, especially on the under surface. The species of Eupleca are mimicked by various species of Papilio, Hypolimnas, Elymnias, &c, and by several Moths belonging to the family Chalcosiidce. GENUS HIRDAPA. Hirdapa, Moore, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1883, p. 299. Type, Euplcca usipefes, Hewitson. The only species belonging to the old genus Euphva for HIRDAPA. 25 which we could find room on our plates is the recently- described Hirdapa rezia, Kirby, which belongs to a genus differing much in shape from the more typical representatives of Euploea. The genus Hirdapa is thus characterised by Mr. Moore. " Male with short, very broad, fore-wing ; costa much arched ; apex acute ; exterior margin long, slightly oblique, and curved; hind margin deeply convex towards the angle ; cell very broad ; upper discocellular slightly concave, lower outwardly oblique ; lower median and sub-median very wide apart, sub- median very recurved, with a very short broad sericeous brand. Hind-wings very broadly oval, exterior margin oblique ; cell broad, with a large pale ochreous glandular patch.'" HIRDAPA REZIA. (Plate VI., Fig. 2.) ( $ .) Hirdapa rezia, Kirby, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. (6), vol. xiii., p. 166 (Feb., 1894). Exp., c? 2f, ? 2>h inches. Male.— Upper side. — Anterior wings dark brown, shading into blackish towards the costa, and inclining to rufous-brown towards the base and margins ; from the base a large fawn- coloured blotch spreads over the wing from above the median nearly to the sub-median nervure and above and between the two lower median nervules for half their length, the greater part of this outer portion being filled up with whitish. Below the lowest median nervule, and just before its middle, is an oval bluish-grey spot. A row of six violet-blue sub-marginal spots between the nervure to above the lowest median nervule, the middle ones smallest, the two nearest the costa marked with white. Posterior wings dark brown, shading into rufous-brown G 2 26 Lloyd's natural history. below the cell to the lower part of the hind and inner margins as far as the anal angle ; apex dusted with white ; a large buff costal patch spreading over the upper half of the cell, but not reaching its base or extremity. Underside — Anterior wings brown; only the outer part of the fawn-coloured patch well marked ; it is smaller and paler than above, and ends as a whitish blotch above the lowest median nervule. Below the median nervure, and for half the length below the lowest median nervule, the wing is pale buff, the place of the white spot above being marked by a narrow black oval outline ; on the inner margin the wing is whiter on both sides of the sub median nervure as far as the anal angle ; sub-marginal spots smaller and whiter than above, the fifth obsolete. Posterior wings uniform rufous-brown. Body dark brown, inclining to blackish in front, with a white spot behind each antenna ; four spots at the back of the head ; a white spot on each side of the thorax in front, and diverging crests of grey hair on the front of the thorax above ; sides of the head and thorax and base of the wings spotted with white beneath. Female.— Upper side.— Anterior wings nearly as in the male, but the fawn-coloured patch much longer than in the latter, and not marked with white, except at the extremity, where the white suffusion forms a pear-shaped spot, covering the place of the sixth sub-marginal spot ; the sub-marginal spots are larger and whiter than in the male, and are continued by a seventh, followed below by a short streak, above the sub-median nervure ; the fawn-coloured patch nearly extends here to the seventh spot ; the white oval spot of the male is, of course, wanting. Posterior wings rufous-brown, darkest in the centre, dusted PLATf, V /. Nebroda Ivhrrifiidti ?. Hirdapa rexin ■'I Tell r rvc mis aliens is. HIRDAPA. 27 with grey along the costa, especially towards the tip, but w.'th no buff space over the upper part of the cell. Under side.— Anterior wings rufous-brown, the pale patch very large, fawn-coloured in and just below the cell, the rest mostly whitish as far as the inner margin, and along it nearly to the anal angle ; of the sub-marginal spots, the two nearest the costa are represented as white dots, the sixth is large and connected by a neck with the outer part of the pale blotch, and there are two small white dots close together between the lowest median nervule and the sub-median nervure. Head, body, and base of wings below spotted with white nearly as in the male, two white streaks at the back of the pectus being particularly conspicuous, much more so than in the male. Hab.— Dinner Island, New Guinea. (II. 0. Forbes.) In the collection of the British Museum. Allied to Hirdapa usipefes, Hewitson (Euploea usipetes, Ex. Butt., ii., Eupl., pi. i., fig. 4), but may be distinguished at once by the sub-marginal spots. Hewitson's type of E. usipetes is from New Guinea, and appears to be the same species as a series from Aru in the British Museum. All these are males, and the insect which Hewitson describes as the female is evidently Sarobia grayi (Felder). Since the above was written, the British Museum has re- ceived specimens from various countries apparently interme- diate between H. usipetes and H. rezia. Kirsch has figured a species of Elymnias (E. tkryal/is), from New Guinea, closely resembling Hirdapa ; but it can be dis- tinguished at once by its dentated wings, apart from any other characters. 2 ^ LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. GENUS TELLERVO. Hamadryas^ nee. Hiibner, Boisduval, Voy. Astrolabe, Lep., p. 91 (1832); Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 134 (1848); Moore, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1S83, p. 253; Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 91 (1886). We have been obliged to rename Boisduval's genus Hama- dryas, because that name had already been used by Hiibner for our common Peacock-Butterfly {Papilio Jo, Linn.) ; so we have named it Tellervo, which is the name of the daughter of Tapio, the Finnish god of the forests. Some authors regard this genus as properly belonging to the DanaincE, while others prefer to consider it as an Old World re- presentative of the otherwise exclusively Tropical American Sub-family Ithomiincc. The species of Tellervo are found in the Moluccas, New Guinea, Australia, &c. They are small black Butterflies, measuring less than two inches in expanse, with rounded wings and clear white markings. They are all very similar, and might easily be mistaken for species belonging to the genus Neptis in the Nymphalince. The type is TELLERVO ZOILUS. Papilio zoilus, Fabr., Syst. Ent, p. 4S0, no. 163 (1775). Hamadryas zoilus, Boisd., Voy. Astrolabe, Lep., p. 91 (1832); Doubl. and Hew., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., pi. 18*, fig. 1 (1847). A black Butterfly found in Australia, with three large white spots on the fore-wings, and the disc of the hind-wings white. TELLERVO MISORIENSIS. {Plate VI. , Fig. 3.) Hamadryas mysoriensis, Staudinger, Exot. Schmett., i., p. 54 (1885) ItHOMlIN^. 2() This species has not been figured before. It is found in Misori Island, N.W. New Guinea, and appears to be the same as T. ovages (Godman and Salvin), from the Solomon Islands. It differs from the other described species of the genus in having the white band on the hind-wings more or less broken into spots. Note. — The genera Lycorca and Ititnaoi Doubleday, which are confined to Tropical America, and which were formerly placed in the Heliconiidce, when this name was used as a family to include the Heluoniin'X, Ithomiiihc, &c, are now usually classed with the Danaimv. They are large long- winged insects, measuring about five inches across the wings. The species of Lycorea are black and tawny, with yellowish spots towards the apex of the fore-wings ; those of I tuna are black, with marginal yellowish spots, or are sub-hyaline, with black bands and nervures. Some of them much re- semble species of true Hcliconius, &c. SUB-FAMILY II. ITHOMIIN^. Egg Not yet described. Larva. — Smooth or slightly warty, but without fleshy appen- dages, feeding chiefly on Solanacece. Pupa. — Short, convex, sometimes nearly as broad as long, metallic. Imago. — Usually of moderate size ; wings long, slender, rounded, often thinly clothed with scales or entirely transparent, except on the borders and at the end of the cell ; wing-cells closed. Sub-median nervure of fore-wings forked at the base. Antennas long and slender ; male without raised scales, but with a tuft of hairs below the sub-costal nervure of the hind wings (see Plate vii., fig. 3) ; female with the front tarsi long and slender. Abdomen with tufts of hair at the extremity in the male, and sometimes also in the female. Eange. — Entirely confined to Tropical America, if we ex- clude Tellervo from the Sub-family. 30 Lloyd's natural history. Habits.— These Butterflies are weak flyers, chiefly frequent- ing woods, and are abundant where they occur. Many of the species, however, have a very restricted range. Characteristics.— The Ithomiiiicc are a protected group, and are very closely mimicked by various Pierince. belonging to the genus Dismorpliia, and by certain Moths of the families Castniidw, Diopiidic, &c. The larger species, with opaque wings, belonging to the genera Melanitis, Fabricius, Melncea, Hiib- ner, &c, have frequently a close resemblance to tawny Heliconiintz, No species of this Sub-family has tailed, or even dentated, wings, and a great number are among the most transparent Butterflies known. They differ considerably in arrangement of markings and pattern; but their range of coloration hardly extends beyond various shades of black, white, tawny and yellow. We have figured two representatives of the typical genus Ithomia, both with transparent wings, to illustrate this rather numerous group ; but there is so much sameness throughout this Sub-family that we have not thought it necessary to deal with the principal genera in detail GENUS ITIIOMIA. Ithomia, Hiibner,Verz. bek. Schmett., p. 9 (1816); Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 26 (1847); Bates, Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond., xxiii., p. 537 (1862); Godman and Salvin, Biol. Centrali-Americana, Lepid. Rhop., i., p. 48 (1879). As this is the typical genus of this Tropical American group, it is better to employ it as a family or sub-family name than to use Schatz's term, JVeotropidce. The species were formerly classed with the Heliconiiihr, and of late years with the Danaince, ITHOMIA. 31 This typical genus of the IthomiincB probably comprises (with a few lately separated from it) about 200 species, and is the most extensive of the sub-family. A great number are more or less transparent, though some are opaque. The front legs of the males are reduced to a mere knob, the tarsi of the females are five-jointed, and the lower disco-cellular nervule of the hind-wings forms an acute or right angle with the median nervure, instead of an obtuse one. The type is ITHOMIA DOTO. A r ereis vitrca doio, Hiibner, Samml. Exot. Schmett., i., pi. 1 (1S06). Itliomia doio, Hiibn., I.e. text (1822 ?). A yellowish-hyaline species, with narrower wings than I. flora (Cramer). It has narrow black borders, and black nervures ; there is an orange-tawny stripe on the fore-wings below the narrow costal border, and another above the inner- marginal border ; and a sub-marginal orange-tawny band on the hind-wings, narrowly edged on both sides with black. It is a native of the Lower Amazons. Dr. Scudder rightly, as we think, regards this species as the type of the genus, being the only one described by Hiibner as an Ithomia in the fragmentary text to his " Sammlung." Other authors, however, select the following species, the first of four (of which /. doto is the third) included under Ithomia by Hiibner in his " Verzeichniss." ITHOMIA DRYMO. Ithomia dry mo, Hiibner, Verz. bek. Schmett, p. 9, no. 3 (18 16). Papilio diaphana, Cramer (nee. Drury), Pap. Exot., iv., pi. 315 figs. D. E. (1780). A Brazilian species, much resembling I. flora (Cramer), but 32 Lloyd's natural history. with no reddish tawny markings, and with a black mark to- wards the end of the cell on the hind-wings. We add figures of two other species of Ithomia. ITHOMIA DIAPHANA. {Plate VII., Fig. I.) Papilio diaphanus, Drury, 111. Exot. Ent, ii., pi. 7, fig. 3 (i773). This species, which inhabits Jamaica, belongs to an extremely transparent group with long narrow wings, which is sometimes regarded as generically distinct under the name of Hymenitis (Hlibner). The tuft of hair on the wings is very conspicuous in Drury's figure, from which ours is copied. ITHOMIA FLORA. {Plate VII., Figs. 2, 3 ) Papilio flora, Cramer, Pap. Exot., iii., pi. 257, figs. B., C. (i779)- This insect is probably a variety of I. astrea, Cramer (Pap. Ex., i., pi. 22, fig. D., 1775), but as it is often represented in col- lections by specimens differing from that figured by Cramer under the name of I. flora, we have been careful to copy his figure exactly. Both I. astrea and I. flora are natives of Surinam. SUB-FAMILY III. ACR^IN^l. Egg. — Resembling that of the Da?iaina. Larva — Cylindrical, gregarious, with branching spines. Pupa. — Long, slender, the thorax angulated, the abdomen sometimes with spines or filaments. Imago. — Of moderate size, the antenna? strongly clubbed ; ACR/E.IKM, 33 palpi long, divergent, rather thick, and scantily clothed with hair, except in Adinote. Wings rounded, rather long, never dentated or tailed ; wing-cells closed, sub-median nervure of the fore-wings not forked at the base ; median nervure simple ; abdomen long, sometimes with a horny appendage in the female. Range. — The Acraina are unknown in the Palsearctic and Nearctic Regions, but are very abundant in Africa, south of the Sahara, and in Madagascar. Two species only are found in the Indian Region, but several inhabit Australia, New Guinea, and some of the adjacent islands. One genus {Adi- note) is peculiar to Tropical America, and is ratnc. numerous in species. Habits. — The Acraince are generally weak flyers, frequenting gardens and weedy places, and flying low ; but some of the woodland species have a higher and stronger flight. In Africa they replace our smaller Fritillaries, to which many of the species have a general resemblance. They are gregarious insects, and often very abundant. Note. — The Acrceince are a protected group of Butterflies, though less so than the DanaincB, and are mimicked by various species of Nymphaliim and Papilionintz. It is even thought that the great West African Dmrya antimachus (Drury), the largest of all African Butterflies, which often measures 8 or 9 inches across its long and narrow wings, has been modified in the direction of Acrcca, if it is not an actual mimic of some gigantic extinct, or at present undiscovered, Acrcea. Most of the Old World species are red or tawny, spotted with black ; a large number are more or less transparent, especially on the fore-wings; others are black, with white, yellow, or reddish transverse bands or spots ; the American 34 Lloyd's natural history. species are more varied in their markings, though rarely spotted, and are never transparent. The possession of a horny pouch in the females of many species is remarkable, for it is a character which attains its maximum of development in Parnassius, and other genera of Pafiilionincz. The common Australian Acrcza andromache (Fabricius) is mimicked by the female of Eurycus cressida (Fabricius), a species belonging to a genus allied to Parnassius^ and which, curiously enough, likewise possesses a pouch. The genus Acrcca was divided by Doubleday into six sec- tions, which later entomologists have treated as genera or sections according to their various views; and one or two other genera have been proposed since. But the genus ALcna pro- posed by Boisduval for a small South African species, has lately been removed from the Acnci/iic, as it proves to belong to the Lyccenidcs. GENUS ACR/EA. Acrcea, Fabr. in Illiger, Magazin fiir Insektenkunde, vi., p. 284 (1807); Latr.j Enc. Meth., ix., pp. 10, 227 (1819); Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lep., p. 140 (1848); Trimen, Rhop. Afr. Austr., p. 92 (1862); id., S. Afr. Butt., i., p. 131 (18S7); Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 101 (1887). Type, Acnca horta (Linn.), from South and West Africa. ACR.^A HORTA. Fapilio horta, Linn., Mus. Ludov. Ulr., p. 234 (1764); Drury, 111. Ex. Ent., iii., pi. 28, figs. 1, 2 (1782); Cram., Pap. Exot, iv., pi. 298, figs. F. G. (1780). Acrcca horta, Godart, Enc. Me"th., ix., p. 231 (1819); Triir.en, Rhop. Afr. Austr., i., p. 92 (1862) ; id., S. Afr. Butterflies, i., p. 134 (1887); Staud. Exot. Schmett., i., p. S2, pi. 7,3 (1885). This is a brick-red insect, with the outer portion of the fore-wings transparent ; there is a black bar closing the cell on the fore-wings, and sometimes one or two small adjacent spots; the hind-wings are spotted with black at the base and in the cell, and have an irregular row of spots beyond and below the cell ; the hind-margin is black, with a row of red spots, hardly separated from the red part of the wing on the inner side. The female is more transparent, and the reddish colour is re- placed by ochreous. It expands from 2 to 2^ inches. The larva feeds on passion-flowers in gardens as well as on native African trees. It is a very common Butterfly in South Africa, and birds will not eat its spiny, strongly-smelling larvae. (Trimen.) The typical section of Acrcca includes most of the species with more or less transparent wings. Doubleday called it Hyalites, in allusion to this feature ; and therefore Dr. Scudder is wrong in proposing to restrict the latter name to A. encedon (Linn.), an opaque species, which Doubleday considered to form a separate sub-section. If, however, any hyaline species in- cluded by Doubleday under Hyalites should be considered generically distinct from A. horta, then the name Hyalites must be revived for it ; but not otherwise. Mr. Trimen unites the following sections under Acrcea : Hyalites, Doubl., Gnesia, Doubl., Telchinia, Hiibn., and Pareba, Doubl. In this he may be correct, except in respect to Pareba, which has much longer and narrower wing-cells than the other groups, with the disco-cellular nervules straight and oblique. The typical species of Pareba is P.vesta (Fabr.), a light ochreous insect, often intersected with light brown stripes. It is about 2^ inches across the wings, and is common in many parts of the Indian Region. Most of the species belonging to the other sections named are African. Telchinia viola; (Fabr.), a common East Indian species of this Sub-family, is smaller than P. vesta, and is of a warm fulvous colour, with black borders, spotted on the 36 Lloyd's natural history. hind-wings with fulvous. There are several black spots on the fore-wings, of which the largest are near the costa. It is very similar to many African species of the genus or sub-genus Telchinia. As an illustration of typical Acrtza, we have figured a newly- described species from the Louisiade Archipelago, near New Guinea. ACR/EA CENONE. (Plate XXXV II. , Fig. 3.) Acrcea osnone, Kirby, Ann. and Mag. Nat Hist., ser. 6, vol. 4, p. 163 (1889). Expanse, about an inch and three-quarters. Male and Female. — Fore-wings semi-transparent grey, darker along the margins and especially at the tip, with a black spot at the base of the cell and transverse black spots in its middle and at its extremity. Beyond the cell is a row of three smaller more or less confluent spots, and there are two more between the branches of the median nervure near their origin; there are also two larger spots between the median and sub- median nervures, one near the base and the other above the middle of the inner margin, and a row of indistinct sagittate spots between the nervures on the hind-margin. Hind-wings black, with a sub-marginal series of eight oblong buff spots, divided by the nervures, those nearest the anal angle emargi- nate on the inside. The spot nearest the costa is linear and considerably produced inwards ; below its inner edge descends a row of three smaller spots, divided by the nervures, and within this is another large irregular spot ; in the black border is a row of obsolete tawny spots, more distinct as they approach the anal angle. Under side similar, but on the hind-wings the sub-marginal tawny spots are much more distinct, and there are several cream-coloured spots in the dark basal portion of the wings, which are only indistinctly indicated on the upper surface. GNESIA. 37 Body black ; the palpi, two round spots on the pro-thorax above, a double row of spots on the sides of the abdomen, and transverse stripes beneath, buff. Pouch of the female reddish. Allied to the Australian A. andromache, Fabr. ; but the latter species is larger, and the buff colour extends over the whole hind-wing except at the extreme base and hind-margin, being divided in the middle by a single or Y-shaped row of confluent black spots. The typical specimens are in the British Museum. They were collected by Mr. Basil Thomson. GENUS GNESIA. Acrcea, section iii., Gnesia, Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lep., p. 141 (1848). In this genus or sub genus the palpi are less swollen and more scaly than in typical Acrcea, and the fore-wings are longer and narrower, rarely transparent, and the cell of the hind-wings is much shorter. The species are generally rather large, brown and red, insects, with black spots and borders ; but Dr. Scudder has selected G. area's (Drury) from Sierra Leone as the type. It has more resemblance to typical Acrcea than the group of G. zetes, and the latter group will, perhaps, be ultimately separated from Gnesia. GNESIA CIRCEI3. Papilio eireeis, Drury, 111. Ex. Ent., iii., pi. 18, figs. 5, 6 (1782). A comparatively small species from Sierra Leone, measur- ing two inches in expanse. The fore-wings are rather long, and are transparent, with the borders and nervures rather broadly brown ; the hind-wings are brown, with black spots at the base, and a yellow band across the centre ; the body is spotted with white- 3S LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. The larger species of Gnesia measure from three to four inches in expanse. G. zefes (Linn.) is dark brown, spotted with black, with a wide red band on the hind-wings, and some yellow spots on the fore-wings. G. egina (Cramer) is also dark brown, spotted with black, with abroad red band on the hind- wings, which is continued on the lower part of the fore-wings ; the females are grey or tawny, instead of red. They are natives of Africa, and are mimicked by Papilio ridhyanus, White, Pseudacrcea tri/neni, Butler, and P. boisdumlii (Doubled.). GNESIA MEDEA. {Plate VII. t Fig. 4.) Papilio medea, Cram., Pap. Exot, i., pi. 81, figs. C. D. (1775). Papilio medoa, Beauv., Ins. Afr. Ame'r., p. 220, pi. vi., figs. 2, 2a, 2b (1805). Papilio pasipliiie, Ydibr. , Spec. Ins., ii., p. 33, no. 140 (1781). Acraa pasiphae, Godart, Encycl. Meth., ix., p. 235, no. 18 (1819). A grey insect, with black borders and spots, and white markings. It is a native of Guinea, and is not represented in the collection of the British Museum, but Dr. A. G. Butler regards it as a variety of the female of G. egina (Cram.), GENUS ACTINOTE. Adinote, Hiibn., Verz. bek. Schmett, p. 27 (1816) ; Godem. & Salv., Biol. Centr. Amer., Lep. Rhop., i., p. 140 (18S1). Acrcea, section Adinote, Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lep., p. 142 (1848). This name is now generally employed for the American species of Acraince. The palpi are only slightly inflated, but PLATE YE /. Ltrwrrua aicLfihexruty. 2.3. do floret-. 4: (jnevicLs meciecv. ACTINOTE. 39 densely clothed with hair and scales, and the front legs in the males are very small. The wing-cells are no narrower than in typical Acrcea ; but those of the fore-wings are much shorter than in Planema, and the disco-cellular nervules run much more irregularly. They are small Butterflies, generally ex- panding about \ Y / Z or 2 inches; and they do not reach the Nearctic Region. They vary very much in pattern from the African species of the Sub-family, but have generally cither black fore-wings, banded and spotted with tawny or yellowish, and tawny or yellowish hind-wings, bordered with black ; or else they are black, with red or yellowish markings. The t\pe is ACTINOTE THALIA. Papilio thalia, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. x.) i., p. 467, no. 63 (1758) ; id., Mus. Ludov. Ulr., p. 230 (1764) ; Clerck Icones, pi. 43, fig. 2 (1764); Cramer, Pap. Exot, hi., pi 246, fig. A. ( 1 7 8 1 ) ; Stoll. Suppl. Cram.., v., pi. i., figs. 6a, 6b (1787). Acrcea thalia, Godart, Enc. Meth., ix., p. 240, no. ^^ (18 19). This insect, which measures rather more than two inches in expanse, is common throughout Tropical America. The fore- wings are rather long, brown in colour, with yel'owish basal streaks and an oblique row of long spots, separated by the nervures, towards the apex. The hind-wings are rust-coloured, with brown veins, intermediate streaks, and borders. In the female the pale portions of the wings are grey or whitish. " Stoll represents the larva of Acrcea thalia as thickly covered with blackish spines fringed with brown hairs. It is brown, with a black dorsal stripe, and is said to feed on the shrubby cotton. The pupa is represented as stouter than that of H , Lloyd's natural history Acrcea viola, white, with some black lines, and a dorsal series of five black spines." (Doubleday.) The following species represents another section of the genus : — ACTINOTE SODALIS. {Plate XXX VII., Fig. 4.) Actinotc sodalis, Butler, Ann. & Mag. N. H. (4), xx., p. 119 (i877). " Allied to A. amida, but the basal half (almost to external angle) of primaries rose-red ; the sub-apical band shorter, more oblique, and considerably narrower ; secondaries jet-black to the base ; abdomen spotted with orange ; primaries below with the red area precisely as above, the band being coloured like the basal area, the ground-colour yellowish instead of reddish, and the veins black. Expanse of wings, 2*2 inches." (A. G. Butler.) Hab. — River Ucayali. 11 A. soda/is is a very distinct species, allied to A. amida (Hew.), A. griseata (Butl.), A. callianira (Hiibn.), and one or two other named forms ; but it differs considerably from all of them. Mr. Davis obtained eight examples." (A. G. B.) The types which are in the British Museum were collected by Mr. Walter Davis on the Peruvian Amazons. As mentioned by Dr. Butler, there are several other species which resemble this ; but the shape and extent of the red markings wi.l be sufficient to distinguish the insect figured. SUB-FAMILY HELICONIIN.E. Ejg. - -Cylindrical, higher than broad, a little flattened at top. HELICONIUS. 41 Larva. — Clothed with branching spines ; feeding chiefly on Passiflorcz. Pupa. — Furnished with spines and bristles. Imago. — Of medium size, usually expanding three or four inches across the wings. Palpi clothed with fine hair, and hairy in front ; wings rounded, long, never dentated or tailed ; sub-median nervure of the fore-wing not forked at the base ; median nervure forked at base. Range. — A characteristic Neotropical group. One species, the black, yellow-striped, H. charithonia (Linn.), extends to the more southern parts of the United States. Habits. — The Heliconiince are woodland insects, gregarious in all their stages. In the evening the Butterflies are said to dance in the air like midges, dropping out as they are tired, when their places are taken by others. GENUS HELICONIUS. Papilio Heliconius, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. x.), i., p. 466 (1758). Heliconius, Latr., Hist. Nat. Crust, et Ins., xiv., p. 10S (1805); Godman and Salvin, Biol. Centrali-Americana, Lep. Rhop., i., p. 143 (1881); Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 104 (1887). Heliconia, Latr., Enc, Meth., ix., pp. 10, 196 (1819); Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 101 (1847). Latreille and Schatz respectively specify H. antiochus (Linn.) and H. eucrate (Hiibner) as the type of Heticonius, but both are inadmissible, as the former was not described by Linnceus till 1767, and the latter is not a Linnean species at all. But several species congeneric with H. antiochus were described by Linnasus in 1758, such as H. mclpomene, H. eraio, and H. ricini ; and H. melpomene may perhaps be taken as the type. H 2 42 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. HELICONIUS MELPOMENE. Papilio mclpomene, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. x.), p. 467, no. 55 (175S); id., Mus. Ludov. Ulr., p. 232 (1764); Cramer, Pap. Exot., ii., pi. 191, fig. C (1777). Heliconia mclpomene, Godart, Encycl. Meth., ix., p. 208, no. 15 (1S19). Heliconius mclpomene, Bates, Trans. Linn. Soc. Loud., xxiii., p. 557, no. 12 (1862); Godman and Salvin, Biol. Cenlrali- Amer., Lepid. Rhop , i., p. 154 (1S81); Staud., Exot. Schmett., i., p. 78, pi. 32 (1885). A black Butterfly, with a broad red bar across the fore- wings. It is common in South and Central America as far north as Nicaragua ; and there are a number of closely-allied species. Heliconius is a rather large genus of handsome Butterflies, which may easily be known by the characters of the Sub-family given above, and by their comparatively large size, and long slender antennae. The species of Eueides, Hiibn., the only other genus, are much smaller, and have shorter antennas, more distinctly clubbed. These Butterflies are always black or blue-black, with yellow, white, red, and tawny markings. Some are very simply coloured, as, for instance, H. mclpomene (Linn.), and its allies, which are black, with a broad red band or blotch 0:1 the fore- wings. In other species there may be a white or yellow band, or even two or three on the fore-wings, perhaps with red or yellow markings at the base, at least underneath ; and the hind- wings may be banded with white, red, or yellow, or radiated with red, blue, or green. We have figured two species, H. era/o (Linn.; pi. viii., fig. 1), and H. vesta (Cram.; pi. viii., fia 2) which exhibit these radiated markings. There is an in- PLATE VILL. /. Heliccnius ercrfjo. 2 „ „ ve&tcu ■ i svli'nnii.*. NYMPHALIN/E. A3 sect which is considered to be a dimorphic form of II. erato, as it usually occurs with it, and appears to be actually the same species, called H. don's (Linn.), in which the red markings are replaced by blue or green. Many of these species are very abundant, and have a very wide range throughout Tropical America. We have figured a third species of the genus, H. sylvanus, (Cram. ; pi. viii., fig. 3), which may serve to represent the black, tawny, and yellow species. They are more restricted in their range, H. sylvanus being a native of Surinam. These tawny species are often so closely mimicked by Ithomiintz of the genera Mechanitis, Fabr., and MeZincea, Hiibn., as to be almost undistinguishable in a cursory examination. SUB-FAMILY V. NYMPHALIN/E. Egg. — Very variable in form. Larva.— Spiny, or with fleshy prominences; feeds on low plants, or shrubs. Pupa. — Generally more or less angular, rather long. Imago. — Generally of moderate size, rarely small ; antennae usually with a distinct club; wings ample, sometimes angu- lated, or with a short tail ; the cells, at least of the hind-wings, open, or closed by a rudimentary nervure ; sub-median nervure of fore-wings generally forked at the base; inner margin of hind-wings more or less concave. The NymphalincB are a very large group of Butterflies, in- cluding, with the Apaturina;, a quarter of the whole of the Nymfihalidcc, and divided into about 150 genera. Some authors include the Morphincc with them, but these are now usually treated as a distinct Sub-family. The NymphalincR and Apatitriuic may easily be distinguished from every other 44 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. Sub-family, except the Morphines, by the rudimentary front legs, and more or less completely open wing-cells. The smaller species flutter from flower to flower, but the larger species are strong on the wing, and have a robust and sus- tained, and, in some cases, a very lofty flight. They have a habit, however, of returning constantly to a favourite spot, or of settling on the ground in muddy places to drink, or else on trees to suck the exuding sap. They are also fond of settling on dung, carrion, or other strongly-smelling substances. The Nymphalintz and Apaturina may be divided into a number of fairly distinct groups, four of which are represented in Britain by the Fritillaries, the Vanessas, the White Admiral, and the Purple Emperor ; in short, by all our largest and most conspicuous species, except those of a white or yellow colour. It will be best to treat of the various groups of these extensive Sub-families separately, under the different representative gen- era which we have selected for illustration. Most recent authors do not recognise the two Sub-families ; but the larvae of Charaxes and Apaticra differ so much from those of the earlier genera, that I have finally decided to treat them as a distinct Sub-family, as was done by Boisduval and others. It is only right to say that this course was strongly urged upon me by the late Mr. Jenner Weir, whose recent death is regretted by so many as the loss of a friend, as well as of a good naturalist. Though he was a wonderfully well-informed man, he wrote little himself, and usually left it to others to publish his observations. Schatz and Rober, in their great work on the genera of Butterflies, divide the NymphalincB (including with them the Apaturincz) into twelve groups of somewhat unequal im- portance. They have also made several trenchant alterations in the position of many of the genera ; and their arrangement will, in the main, be followed here. It is as follows : — NYMPHALINjE. 45 Groups of Genera of Nymphalin^e as arranged dy SCHATZ. A. Larva clothed with more or less developed spines. a. Front tarsi in the female with spines on joints 1-4. t Median spur present. I. Argynnis group : Colaenis, Dione, Cethosia, Cynthia, Argynnis. % Median spur absent. II. Melitrea group : Melitsea, Phyciodes, Coatlantora. III. Vanessa group : Hypanartia, Vanessa, Precis, Salamis, Kallima, Eurytela. IV. Diadema group : Hypolimnas, Victorina, Hestina, Euripus, Euxanthe. V. Ageronia group : Ageronia, Panacea, Ectima ; and sub-section: Biblis group, Didonis, Cystineura, Vila. b. Front tarsi in the female with spines on joints 2-4 only. t Median spur absent. VI. Eunica group. a. Eunica group (restricted). Myscelia, Catonephele, Eunica, Temenis. b. Catagramma group : Perisama. Callicore, Catagramma, Callithea : and sub-section : Gynoecia group : Gynaxia, Smyrna, Callizona. VII. Neptis group : Neptis (and Dynamine ?). \ \ Median spur present. 4(J LLOYDS NATURAL HlSlORV. VIII. Limenitis group : Limenitis, Adelpha, Athyma, Pseudacrgea, Parthenos, Euryphene, Romaleosoma [Euphsedra], and allies (with Megalura and Cyrestis ?). IX. Euthalia group : Euthalia, Symphaedra. B. Larva smooth, only the head provided with horns or short prickles ; tail forked. t Median spur absent. X. Apatura group : Apatura and allies, Thaleropis, Dichorragia, Apaturina. XI. Ancea group : Anrea, Hypna, Protogonius. Sub-section : Group of Pseudo-Nymphalinas, Aganisthos, C.ea, Megislanis. I f Median spur present. XII. Nymphalis group. Siderone, Prepona, Charaxes, Prothoe. This arrangement is, however, tentative and artificial, and will require considerable modification and improvement before it can be accepted as final. Thus, while the long-winged Colcenis and Metamorplia seem quite out of place in the "Argynnis" group, Argynnis and Me/itcra, and A T eptis and Limenitis, appear to be too closely allied to be worth separating, as distinct sections. What Schatz calls the " median spur " is a short spur-like branch from the base of the median nervure of the fore- wings, not a spine, nor a frenulum. GENUS METAMORPHA. Metamorp/ia, Hiibner, Verz. bek. Schmett., p. 43 (iSi6)j Godman & Salvin, Biol. Centrali-Amer., Lepid. Rhop.,i., p. 166 (1SS1); Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 113 (1SS7). PLATE IL. JletamovpHos cUda. METAMORPHA. 47 The type is METAMORPHA DIDO. (Plate IX.) rapilio dido, Johanssen, Amcen. Acad, vi., p. 408, no. 74 (1764), Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. xii.), i. (2), p. 7S2, no. 192 (1767); Clerck, Icones, pi. 30, fig 2 (1764); Cram. Pap. Exot., iii., pi. 196, figs. E. F. (1779). CetJwsia dido, Godart, Enc. Meth., ix., p. 246, no. 9 (181 9). Metamorpha dido, Godman & Salvin, Biol. Centrali-Amer., Lep. Rhop., i., p. 166 (1SS1). CoLcnis dido, Staud., Exot. Schmett., i., p. S6, pi. 34 (18S5.) Metamorpha dido resembles a Heliconius in its very long fore-wings, which are slightly dentated ; the hind-wings are much more so. It expands about four inches, and is a very common Tropical American insect, frequenting cultivated ground. It is velvety-black above, with green markings. The fore-wings have a green band in the cell, beyond which is a broad green band interrupted about the middle of the wing, but continued by oblique bands below the lower end of the extremity of the cell ; and there are also several other green spots. The hind-wings are green at the base, and are marked with a row of rather large sub-marginal spots. The under surface is green and black, varied with reddish ochreous and silvery- white. The larva has several rows of short spines, radiating from tubercles, and two very long caudal appendages. It is green, with a red and white stripe on each side, and feeds on Passifloi'ce. The allied Tropical American genera Colcznis and Dione, Hiibner, likewise much resemble the Heliconiimc in their habits, long wings and larvae; and Fritz Miiller proposed to include them in the same group, notwithstanding their open wing-cells. The species of Colcenis and Dione are mostly fulvous Butterflies, bordered and varied with brown or blackish ; but one or two are reddish. The spee'es of Colcenis are of nearly the same shape as 4 S Lloyd's natural history. Metamorpha, whichmost entomologists have,until lately, included in the same genus ; but those of Dione have shorter fore-wings, with the hind-margin more excavated, and sub-triangular hind- wings. In Colccnis the under surface generally resembles the upper, but is paler ; while in Dione the hind-wings beneath and the apical half of the fore-wings are still more richly spotted with bright silver than in our Queen of Spain Fritillary. Respecting the habits of Colanis and Dione, Bates writes that " they are seen only in open sunny places, such as waste grounds, gardens, and the borders of woods, where flowering bushes grow. They are never found in the great forest, but seem to be attendants on man, making their appearance wherever a clearing is commenced in the woods. They have not a very rapid flight, nor much of the floating mode of pro- gression when on the wing, but move about somewhat irregularly, and settle frequently, their attraction being always flowers, and never moisture, or filth on the ground, as is the case with the more typical genera of Nymphalidcc" He also remarks on their close relationship with the Hcliconiiiuc. GENUS CETIIOSIA. Ccthosia, Fabr. in Illiger, Mag. Insekt., vi., p. 2S0 (1807) ; Latr. and Godart, Encycl. Meth., ix., p. 242 (1S19); Doubl., Gen. Uiurn. Lepid., p. 150 (1848) ; Moore, Lepid. Ceylon, L, p. 81 (18S0) ; Distant, Rhop. Malay., p. 170 (1SS3) ; De Nicev., Butterflies Ind., ii., p. 31 (iSS6);Schatz, Exot. Schmett, ii., p. 115 (18S7). The types are Cethosia biblis (= P. penthesilea, Fabr., nee. Cram.), from North India ; and C. cydippe (Linn.), from the Moluccas. The genus Cethosia is characteristic of the Indo- and Austro- Malayan Regions, to which it is exclusively confined, and where C2TH0SIA. 49 it seems to represent Argynnis, two species only of which range beyond Northern India over the countries occupied by Cethosia. The Cethosice are very handsome Butterflies, measur- ing about three inches in expanse, with broad dentated wings, and generally with elegant festooned markings, at least on the under surface, giving them very much the same character of coloration as a Turkey carpet, patterns for which might easily be taken from these Butterflies. The upper surface is generally tawny or fulvous, often spotted with black ; the borders, and the apical portion of the fore-wings are more or less broadly black or brown, with a white band, or whitish markings. The tawny colouring is sometimes replaced by white or bluish-white, especially in the females, and one species, C. leschenaultii (Godart) from Timor, much resembles our Camberwell Beauty, being of a reddish-brown colour above, with a broad pale yellow border, divided by the nervures. The larvae are spiny, black, banded with red and yel- low, and with two protuberances on the head. Like the larvae of Metamorpha and its allies, they are stated to feed on Passiflone, and are even said to possess stinging properties, no doubt resident in the spines, though the larvae of Butterflies do not possess the terribly urticating arrangements (described, in some cases, as amounting to fascicles of actual stings) which render the caterpillars of some Moths so formidable. As a representative of this genus we have figured CETHOSIA MAHRATTA. {Plate X.) Cethosia mahratta, Moore, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1872, p. 556; De Nicev., Butterflies Ind., ii., p. 34, pi. 22, fig. 98 (18S6). Papilio cyane, Cramer (nee. Drury), Pap. Exot, iv., pi. 295, figs. C, D. (1780) 50 Lloyd's natural history. This is a very handsome South Indian species, measuring nearly four inches across the wings. It has fulvous fore-wings, bordered behind with yellowish-tawny, which colour extends over the greater part of the hind-wings. The hind-margins are black, with the fringes white, and a festooned white line within. The apical portion of the fore-wings is black, and both wings are crossed by a row of large oval black spots, mostly with white borders ; besides which there is an oblique white band, cut by the nervures, running from the costa towards the middle of the border of the fore-wings. The fulvous portion of the latter is marked with two rows of spots, diverging hindwards, and continued more regularly on the hind-wings ; nearer the base are a few more black spots. On the under surface the black portion of the wing is reduced, the white markings are rather more extended, and the rows of black spots are more regular. Until recently this species was confounded with C. cyane (Drury), a commoner and more uniformly tawny Indian species. GENUS CYNTHIA.' Cynthia, Fabr., Illiger, Mag. Insekt., vi., p. 281 (1807) ; Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lep., p. 212 (1849); Moore, Lepid. Ceylon, i., p. 52 (18S0); Distant, Rhop. Malay., p. 183 (1883); De Nicev., Butterflies Ind., ii., p. 40 (1SS6); Schatz, Exot. Schmett, ii., p. 116 (1SS7). The type is CYNTHIA ARSINOE. Papilio arsinoe, Cramer, Pap. Exot., ii., pi. 160, f. B. C. (1777). It is said by Cramer to be found in the islands of Amboina and Sumatra. This genus was formerly included with Vanessa, on account of the shape of the wings, which have the hind-margins scalloped, thos; of the fore-wings slightly concave, and those PLATE X Cethosia maJvraMas. CYNTHIA. 5 1 of the hind-wings angulated below, and with a strong project- ing tooth at the outer angle. Now, however, they are con- sidered to be nearly allied to Argynnis, but their shape, com- bined with the two large eyes on the hind-wings, will be amply sufficient to distinguish them from any other genus of this group. They are large insects, four or five inches in expanse, and are peculiar to India and the Indian and Austro-Malayan islands as far as New Guinea. The sexes a: e very dissimilar, the males being orange-tawny or fulvous, and the females brown, with blue and white markings. They still require careful study in order to determine the number and range of the species, and to assign the sexes correctly. As in many other Butterflies, the females are much larger than the males. CYNTHIA JULIANA. {Plate XIX., Fig. I.) Papilio Juliana, Cramer, Pap. Exot., hi., pi. 2S0, figs. A. B. (1780). This fine Butterfly is a native of the Island of Amboina, and measures nearly five inches across the wings. It is generally regarded as the female of C. arsinoe (Cramer), a fulvous Butter- fly, with two large eyes on the hind-wings ; but as this is un- certain, it is better to employ the name given by Cramer to the present insect, though there is little doubt that the true male will ultimately prove to much resemble C. arsinoe. In C. Juliana the wings are brown above, and the fore-wings are bordered with pale blue, followed by two black lines, one marginal, and the other sub-marginal. Within these are three irregular rows of white spots and crescents, generally bordered with black. In the cell are two blackish transverse streaks. The hind-wings are marked with a very broad sub-marginal bluish band, with an irregular border on the inner side, and are bordered on the outside with large black and bluish-white 5 2 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. lunules. On the band appear two very large black eyes with blue pupils in yellow and black rings. The under side is much paler than the upper, and the white spots of the fore- wings are united into an almost continuous band, as on the hind-wings. THE LARGE SILVER-MARKED FRITILLARIES. GENUS ARGYNNIS. Argynnis, Fabr., Illiger, Mag. Insekt, vi., p. 283(1807); Latr., Encycl. Meth., ix., p. 10 (1S19); Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 171 (1S4S) ; Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 118 (1SS7). Various authors have selected A. aglaia and A. paphia as types of this genus, but the former seems to have the better claim. At present, however, these species are usually regarded as congeneric, so that the point is of no immediate conse- quence. This genus includes the larger silver-spotted and silver- streaked Fritillaries, and our British species may easily be dis- tinguished by their comparatively large size (they usually measure from two to three inches across the wings), their fulvous hue above, spotted with black, and the conspicuous silver streaks or spots of the under surface. The antennas have a short broad club, the fore-wings are more or less pointed, with the hind-margin slightly oblique, and sometimes a little pointed, while the hind-wings are rounded and dentated. The palpi are prominent, and much thickened, though the terminal joint is small and pointed ; two sub-costal nervules are thrown off before the end of the cell on the fore-wings, and there is a short median spur. The larva? are covered with branching spines, and generally feed on violets. The genus Argyn7iis is peculiar to the Northern Hemisphere, and is almost confined to the temperate regions. It is only ARGYNNIS. 53 found in Africa along the north coast, which really belongs to the European fauna ; and though several very handsome species are found in Northern India, the only species properly belong- ing to the Indian Peninsular fauna is A. niphe (Linn.), a some- what aberrant form, the female of which mimics Limnas chrysippus. It is found in India, Ceylon, and Sumatra; and an allied species, in which, however, the female resembles the male, A. inconstans, Butler, is found in Australia. Several species exhibit a tendency to dark green instead of fulvous colouring, especially in the female, as in the dark variety of our own A. paphia (Linn.), and in both sexes of the South European A. ?naia (Cramer). Another remarkable species with a green female is A. sagana, Doubleday, a Butterfly found in China and Japan, in which the male is very similar to A. paphia, but the female is dark green, with large white blotches and spots, giving it much the appearance of the genus Athyma, which is allied to Limenitis. It is not surprising that when this female was first brought from Eastern Siberia it should have been described as belonging to a new genus and species, under the name of Damora pau/ina, Nordmann. Among the Himalayan species is the splendid A. childreni, Gray, a very large insect measuring four inches or more in expanse, and marked with broad silver interlacing bands on the under surface. Argynnis is one of the few genera which are as well repre- sented in the Nearctic as in the Palaearctic Region. Many very handsome species are common in most parts of the United States, such as A. idalia (Drury), which measures nearly four inches across the wings. The fore-wings are fulvous, spotted with black, and the hind-wings are brown above, with a trans- verse row of white spots, and a sub-marginal row, orange in the male, and white in the female ; beneath there are four rows of slightly silvery spots. But the greatest variety is found in the 54 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. msmWMm Silver-washed F .,• v Tlnnei side of the Female. ritillary [A rgynms paflua). U ppei siae o / Upper side of the variety of the Female called A. vahsma Under side of the female PLATE XI. /. Z. JLrcjynnis paphia,. c/. t; JSjelvbcea cincati. ARGYNNIS. 55 South-western United States. One of the most remarkable species of the Southern States is A. diana (Cramer), the male of which is black, with a very broad orange border, while the female, which measures five inches in expanse, is dark green, with several rows of white spots towards the margins of the fore-wing>, and with broad blue bands towards the margins of the hind-wings. THE SILVER-WASHED FRITILLARY. ARGYNNIS PAPIIIA. [Piatt XI., Figs. 1,2; Male.) rapilio paphia, Linn., Syst, Nat. (ed. x.), i., p. 481, no. 13S (1758) • id., Faun. Suec. (ed. ii.), p. 281, no. 1064 (1 761) ; Esper, Schmett., i. (1), p. 223, pi. 17, figs. 1, 2; i. (2), p. 58, pi. 60, fig. 4 (1777). Argynnis paphia, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 40 (1827) ; Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 21, pi. 9, figs. 6a-d (1878); Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 214, pi. 3, fig. 1 (1883); Buckler, Larvae of Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., p. 58, pi. 10, fig. 1 (1886); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 156, pi. 22 (1892). Var. a. Argynnis vaksina. Papilio valesina, Esper, I.e., i. (2), p. 73, pi. 107, figs. 1, 2 (1790?). Argynnis paphia, var. valczina, Lang., I.e., p. 214, pi. 52, fig. 2 (18S3). This is one of the largest and handsomest of our British Butterflies, sometimes measuring nearly three inches in ex- panse. The male is of a rich fulvous, with two rows of black spots on the outer half of the wings, in addition to a marginal row. There are also several black spots towards the centre of the fore-wings, and a thick black interrupted zig-zag line across all the wings ; and the fore-wings are streaked with black along 1 56 Lloyd's natural history. the longitudinal nervures. The female is very similar, but is of a more yellowish fulvous; and in the variety A. valesina (Esper) it is greenish-brown, with black spots, and some white spots near the tip of the fore-wings. There are no black streaks on the nervures in the female. On the under surface, the fore- wings are marked nearly as above, but the tip is greenish. The hind-wings are green, with a silvery streak across the centre, and two shorter ones nearer the base; the hind-margin c Suspended Chrysalid oLArgynnis papliia. has a more or less distinct silvery streak. It is found in woods in July and August. The larva is light brown, yellowish on the back, with two dark lines along the sides ; the spines are long and hairy, and two, placed on the first segment just behind the head, are con- siderably longer than the rest. (See plate hi., fig. 5.) It feeds on dog-vio'et and raspberry in May and June. This fine Butterfly is very common in woods in many parts of England, frequenting the open glades and edges, where sometimes several may be seen together, chasing each other, or settling on brambles and other flowers. It is a powerful insect on the wing, and by no means easy to catch, if frightened ; and when it is settled on a b ramble-flow. r, it is of course diffi- PLATE XII. *-<** I. I Argynnis aqlcua . O i JJrenUtf.s aiphrns\-rte ARGYNNIS. 57 cult to try to capture it without the risk of tearing or entangling the net. THE DARK GREEN FRITILLARY. ARGYNNIS AGLAIA. {Plate XII., Figs, i, 2.) rapilio aglaia, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. x.), i., p. 481, no. 140 (175S); id., Faun. Suec. (ed. ii.), p. 2S1 (1761) ; Esper, Schmett, i. (i), p. 229, pi. 17, fig. 3 ; i. (2), p. 57, pi. 60, fig. 2 (1777). Argyiuiis aglaia, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust., i., p. 39 (1S27); Curtis, Brit. Ent, vii., pi. 290 (1S30) ; Kirby, Eur. Butter- flies and Moths, p. 21, pi. 9, figs. 4a-d (1S7S); Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 200, pi. 50, fig. 1 (18S3); Buckler, Larvae Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., p. 71, pi. 10, fig. 3 (1SS6); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. IsL, i., p. 167, pi. 24 (1892). Var. Papilio charlotta, Haworth, Lepid. Brit., i., p. 32, no. 37 (1803); Sowerby, Brit. Miscelk, i., pi. 11 (1S06). The Dark Green Fritillary is the commonest and most widely- distributed of our larger Fritillaries, and is found in meadows and on heaths, frequently settling on flowers, though capable of a strong and sustained flight. It is met with in June and July. It generally measures from 2*.{ to 2^ inches across the wings, which are fulvous on the upper surface, and darker, with a slight greenish shade, in the female. The base is more or less black, and the hind-margins are black, with a festooned black line running round them, enclosing fulvous spots. Within this is a transverse series of larger round spots ; and nearer the base are more black spots and short streaks in the cell and be- tween the nervures. The fore-wings are fulvous beneath, with the tip and hind-margin greenish, more or less spotted with silver. The hind-wings are greenish, with a band of silvery 1 2 53 Lloyd's natural history. spots across the centre, a row of silvery spots on the hind margin, and several more towards the base. The larva feeds on dog-violet in May and June. It is brownish-black, yellowish on the back, with a row of quad- rate lateral red spots, one on each side of each segment, except Under side of the variety of the Female called A. charlotta. the two near the base. The pupa is reddish, with waved streaks of brown. This species is not only one of the commonest, but one of the most widely-distributed throughout Europe and Asia ; and some of the Himalayan, and even Californian, forms resemble it so closely that many entomologists have regarded them as identical. The variety called A. charlotta has very large silvery spots towards the base ; it is purely accidental, and not common. THE HIGH P.ROWN FRITILLARY. ARGYNNIS ADIPPE. {Plate XI II., Figs, i, 2.) Papilio aJippe, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. xii.), i. (2), p. 786, no. 212 (1767); Esper, Schmett., i. (1), p. 232, pi. iS, fig. 1., p. 369, pi. 43, fig. 2 ; i. (2), p. 58, pi. 60, fig. 3, p. 120, pis. 74, 75, figs. 1, 2 (i777)- ARGYNNIS, High Brown Fritillary {Argynnis adippe). Upper side of the Male. Upper side of the Female. \ / Under side of the Male. (3 i.loyd's natural history. Argynnis adippe, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust., i., p. 38 (1827) ; Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 20, pi. 9, fig. 3(1878); Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 212, pi. 50, fig. 1 (1S83): Buckler. Lame Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., p. 65, pi. 10, fig. 2 (1S86); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 161, pi. 23 (1892). Var. a. Argynnis cleodoxa. Argynnis cleodoxa, Ochsenh., Schmett. Eur., iv., p. 1 18 (1S16) ; Lang, I.e., pi. 51, fig. 2 (1S83). Papilio adippe, Esper, Schmett, i. (1), p. 317, pi. 26, fig. 4 ; i. (2) p. 120, pi. 74, fig. 3, p. 127, pi. 76, fig. 2b (I777)- Var. b. Argynnis chlorodippe. Argynnis chlorodippe, Herr.-Schaff., Schmett. Eur., vi., p. 5 ( 1 S5 2). Argynnis adippe, var. chlorodippe, Lang, I.e., pi. 51, fig. 3 (1883). This species is generally rather smaller than A. aglaia, measuring two inches or a little more across the wings, and although not uncommon in many localities, is much less generally abundant than A. aglaia. It is more of a woodland insect, though it also frequents heaths, appearing like the other large Fritillaries, about July. The upper surface of the wings is very similar to that of A. aglaia, and the transverse row of black spots consists of five on the fore-wings (there being a break between the second and third) and three on the hind-wings. In the male, two of the nervuics of the fore- wings are thickened. On the under surface, the tip of the fore-wings is yellowish, not spotted with silver, or with only two or three spots, and the hind-wings are also yellowish, with silvery spots, which are rather dull towards the hind margins. A row of red spots with silvery pupils runs across the hind-wings between the marginal silvery spots and the inner row. This shows a certain relationship to A. latlionia (Linn.). ARGYNNIS. 61 This is a very variable insect, and there are several well- marked Continental forms which are considered to belong to this species, but they are very different from the British insect. One of these is A. chhrodippe, Herr.-Schaff., which is green on the under surface of the hind-wings, with bright silvery spots ; Under side of the variety A. cleodoxa. and another is A. cleodoxa (Esper), in which the pale spots are yellow, not silvery. The latter has occasionally been taken in England. The larva is reddish, becoming olive-green as it grows older, with a white dorsal line, and blackish streaks or spots ; it is very spiny, and the spines are lighter than the ground-colour. It feeds on sweet violet and wild heartsease in early summer. THE NIOBE FRITILLARY. ARGYNNIS NIOCE. {Plate XIV., Figs. I, 2.) rapilio niobe, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. x.), i., p. 48, no. 143 (175S) ; id., Faun. Succ. (ed. ii.), pi. 2S2, no. 1067 (1761) ; Esper, Schmett, i. (1), p. 247, pi. iS, fig. 4; 1.(2), p. 124 pi. 75, fig. 3(1777)- 62 Lloyd's natural history. Argynnis nkbe, Steph., Ill Brit. Ent. Haust., i., p. 37 (1827) ; Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 20 (1878); Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 210, pi. 50, fig. 1, pi. 53, fig. 5, larva (1883); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Tsl., i., p. 165 (1S92). Var. a. Argynins en's. Argvnnis en's, Meig., Eur. Schmett., i., p. 64, pi. 14, fig. 5 (1829). Papilio deodoxa (nee Ochsenh.) Esper, Schmett., i. (2), p. 3, pl- 94, fig- 3 (1782). Argvnnis niobc, var. en's, Lang, I.e., p. 211, pl. 50, fig. 3 (1883). This species has long been reputed British, and is said to be occasionally captured in the South of England, and there- fore we have figured it in the present volume, though it has not yet been clearly established whether the supposed British specimens of A. niobe, if of truly British origin, were not really varieties of A. adippc. On the Continent, it is at least as common a species as the latter, and is met with at the same time of year. This Fritillary is of the same size as A. adippe, and much resembles it. The row of black spots consists of six spots on the fore-wings (the gap mentioned in the description of A. adippe being filled up with a small spot) and five on the hind- wings. In the male, the nervures are not thickened ; and there are one or two pale spots near the tip of the fore-wings in the female, which are wanting in typical A. adippe. The under side of the hind-wings is pale yellow, slightly tinged with green, and the pale spots are much more often yellowish (var. A. en's) than silvery. There is a row of four at the base, then three large ones (between these is a small black or silvery dot, wanting in A. adippe); generally traces of another row of smaller ones, next a row of seven rather large ones, the central PLATE XIH. ■ ar N-W> /. 2 Aryvnnis adippe J. 4. cJaj lathnrna ARGYNNIS. 63 one small ; outside this is a row of red spots with silvery pupils, and a marginal row of seven silvery or yellow spots. The larva is brownish, with a black dorsal stripe bordered with white, a black lateral stripe, and between the two some triangular white blotches. It feeds on Viola dorsata in May. THE QUEEN OF SPAIN FRITILLARY. ARGYNNIS LATHONIA. {Plate XIII., Firs. 3, 4.) Papilio lathonia, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. x.), i., p. 4S2, no. 141 (1758); id., Faun. Suec. (ed. ii.), p. 282, no. 1068(1761); Esper, Schmett., i. (1), p. 238, pi. 18, fig. 2 (1777). Argynnis lathonia, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust., i., p. 36 (1827); Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 21, pi. 9, fig. 5 (1878); Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 207, pi. 49, fig. 2 (1S83); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 170, pi. 25, figs. 1, ia, ib (1892). Although this is the smallest British species of true Argyn- nis, only measuring two inches or less across the wings, it is, perhaps, the handsomest of all. The wings are fulvous on the upper surface, with two rows of sub-marginal black spots, and the base is rather broadly black, with some additional black spots between this and the band. On the under surface the fore-wings are yellowish-fulvous, with a few oval silvery spots at the tip ; the hind-wings have a row of very large oval silvery spots extending completely round them, and a large oval silvery spot in the centre. Between the cen- tral spot and the marginal spots there is a red band containing a row of silvery dots. The rest of the wing is of a yellowish- fulvous, but the large silvery spots cover the greater part of its surface. This Fritillary is double-brooded, being found in early sum- 64 Lloyd's natural history. mer and again in autumn. It frequents lanes, open places in woods, clover-fields, and similar localities. It is a very scarce insect in the south of England, and has once or twice been taken in the south of Ireland, but is only to be met with casu- ally, though it is much commoner on the Continent. It is not unlikely that it is occasionally passed over as Satyrus megara (Linn.), which it somewhat resembles when flying, though it is a larger and brighter-coloured insect. A very closely-allied species, A. isscea, Gray, chiefly differing in the more yellowish fulvous of the wings, is common in the Hima- layas. The larva is brownish-green, with a white streak on the back and two brownish-yellow lateral streaks. The incisions are brownish-yellow, and the spines and feet are ochre-yellow. It is solitary, and feeds on Heartsease {Viola tricolor), Saintfoin (IlcJysarum medicaginis\ Anchura officinalis, and other low plants. GENUS BRENTHIS. Brenthis, Hiibn., Verz.bek. Schmett., p 30 (1816); Schatz,Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 119 (1887). The type of this genus has been given by Dr. Scudder as B. hecate (Denis), which is one of the smaller European species of true Argynnis, as that genus is at present understood. We therefore retain Brenthis, as used by Schatz, with B. selene as the type, only provisionally. If permanently used in this sense, however, the real type will be B. thore (Hiibn.), a very dark-coloured Alpine and Scandinavian Butterfly, allied to B. atphrosyne and B. selene ; for no other species congeneric with the latter was originally included in Brenthis by Hiibner. This genus was formerly included sometimes with Argynnis, and sometimes with Melitcea (Curtis, indeed, indicated B. euphrosyne as the type of Melitcea, but erroneously), but is now frequently treated as distinct. It is really intermediate between BRENTH1S. 65 the two, resembling Argynnis in the general character of its markings, and especially in the silvery or purplish markings of the under surface, and Mclitcea in its small size, and in its habits. The generic characters most resemble those of Argynnis, but the palpi are only slightly thickened, and on the fore-wings only one sub-costal nervule is thrown off before the end of the cell, while the median spur is wanting. In these characters it ap- proaches Melitcea, but in Brenthis the tibiae are encircled with spines. More important differences, however, are shown by the larvse, which are furnished with branching spines in Brenthis, as is the case in typical Argynnis. The larvoe of Brenthis, like those of Argynnis, feed chiefly on violets. Brenthis is a more widely distributed genus than Argynnis. It is represented by numerous species throughout the Palsearctic Region, and among these several are Arctic and Circumpolar, and have been found almost as far north as our explorers have yet penetrated, while others are truly Alpine species. It is, however, poorly represented in North America, only two species, A. bellona (Fabr.), and A. myrina (Cram.), being generally common in the United States ; but there is a little cluster of somewhat aberrant species found in Chili. PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY. BRENTHIS EUPHROSYNE. {Plate XII., Figs. 3, 4.) rapiho euphrosyne, Linn., Syst. Nat. (x.), i., p. 4S1, no. 142 (175S); id. Faun. Suec. (ed. ii.), p. 282, no. 1069(1761); Esper, Schmett, i. (1), p. 242, pi. 18, fig. 3 ; i. (2), pi. 114, pi. 72, fig. 3. (1777). Mclitcea euphrosyne, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 135, pi. iv., fig. 4 (1827, var.). Argynnis euphrosyne, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 18 (1878); Lang, Butterflies, Eur., p. 198, pi. 46, figs. 5, (1883); Buckler, Lame of Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., p. 77, pi. n, fig. 2 (1886); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 174, pi. 25, figs. 2, saf (1S92). 66 Lloyd's natural history. This Butterfly is generally distributed throughout England, and is often very common in open spaces in or near woods in May, flitting from flower to flower, and is very easily cap- tured. On the Continent it is double-brooded, but the autumn brood is rarely seen in England. It measures about an inch and three-quarters across the wings, which are fulvous, with the base more or less broadly, and the hind-margins narrowly, black. Within the borders are two rows of black spots on all the wings, and there are several black spots and short transverse lines in the cell and elsewhere, towards the base. The outer marginal row of black spots is sometimes united into a festooned line, enclosing fulvous spots. The under surface of the fore-wings is marked as above, but is yellowish towards the margins, and the hind- wings are varied with red, with a marginal row of silvery spots, a silvery spot at the base, and a pale yellow central band, with one large silvery spot in the middle. There is also a con- spicuous black spot in a yellow ring in the cell of the hind- wings. The larva is black and spiny, with white lines, and reddish pro-legs. It feeds on different species of violet in June and September. SMALL PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY. BRENTHIS SELENE. {Plate XV., Figs, i, 2.) rapilio sckne, Denis and Schiff., Syst. Verz. Schmett. Wien, p. 321,110. 11 (1776); Hiibn., Eur. Schmett., i., figs. 26, 27, 732, 733, 733 (i§°3, &c.). Papilio euphrosy?ie, var. Esper, Schmett., i. (1), p. 325, pi. 30, fig. 1 (i777)- Mt'Iitira selene, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust., i-, p. 34 (1827); Curtis, Brit. Ent., ix., pi. 386 (1832). LRENTHIS. 67 Argynnis sefene, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. iS (1878); Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 197, pi. 46, fig. 4 (1SS3) ; Buckler, Larvre Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., p. 73, pi. 11, fig. 1 (1886); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 17S, pi. 26, figs. 1, ia-f (1892). Notwithstanding its trivial name of "Small " Pearl-bordered Fritillary, this Butterfly is very nearly of the same size as the last, which it much resembles in its habits and appearance, though it is generally a week or two later on the wing. It is at least as common an insect, and is also double-brooded, the second brood, though common on the Continent, being less frequently noticed in England. Small Pearl -bordered Fritillary {Aroyiinis seleite). Under side. The markings of the upper surface of the wings closely resemble those of B. euphrosyne, though the spots towards the base have less tendency to form streaks and lines. The under surface of the hind-wings has a marginal row of silvery spots, followed by a purplish-red band with a large yellow spot in the middle ; and next to this is an irregular band of silvery and yellow spots. Between this band and a basal row of silvery spots is another reddish band. The larva is black, with reddish-yellow spines, and brownish-red legs. It feeds on dog-violet, as is the case with other Fritillaries. Very curious aberrations of this species are occasionally met with, of one of which we have given a woodcut on the next page. 68 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. When I first met with these species, I took B. euphrosyne in a clearing in a wood in Sussex ; and on revisiting the spot a few days later, took B. selcne. I afterwards took the latter species by the side of a wood close to Brighton, where I never saw Under side of a variety of B. sckne. B. euphrosyne ; and I have always found B. selene far more abundant than B. euphrosyne near Diisseldoif, in Germany, especially in autumn, when it is one of the commonest Butter- flies in the woods. weaver's fritillary. brenthis dia. {Plate. XIV., Fig. 5, 6.) rapilio dia, Linnajus, Syst. Nat. (ed. xii.), i., pt. 2, p. 7S5, no. 277 (1767); Espcr, Schmett, i., pt. 1, p. 221, pi. 14, fig. 4; i., pt. 2, p. 66, pi. 61, fig. 2 (1777). Melitcea dia, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 34 (1S27). Argynnis dia, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 18, pi. 9, fig. 1 (1878) ; Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 203, pi. 4S, fig. 1 (1SS3) ; Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 1S3 (!8 9 2). The present species derives its English name from Richard Weaver, a celebrated collector and dealer in English insects, who flourished fifty or sixty years ago. He had a specimen which he believed to have been taken by himself in Sutton PLATE. XIV #H 99 /. .?. Argynnls niobe 3. ( h MeLtea aBialia ,5. 6. Brent his dha. BRENTHIS. 69 Tark, near Birmingham. Other examples have been taken in England from time to time, but so rarely that very few entomo- logists are disposed to admit the claims of this Fritillary to be considered a British species. On the Continent, however, it is not an uncommon Butterfly in woods, and is double-brooded like its congeners, appearing both in spring and autumn. It is a somewhat smaller insect than the other species, measuring about an inch and a quarter across the wings, which are fulvous, with the base black, and the margins likewise black, with a festooned line, inclosing rather large fulvous spots ; within this is a row of rather large black spots, and the re- mainder of the wings is likewise rather more heavily spotted with black than in the allied species. The under side of the hind-wings is black at the base, followed by a band of three silvery and three yellow spots ; between these and the silvery marginal spots is a purple band ; and a row of black spots with white pupils runs parallel to the marginal spots. The larva is dark brown or black, the back paler, inter- sected by a black dorsal line, the spines alternately black and reddish ; legs black. It feeds on different species of violet. During the last fifty years, several species of Butterflies have become actually or very nearly extinct in England, and others, formerly not uncommon, have become much restricted in their range. It is probable that this process has been going on for a long time, and that some of the species included by the older authors, but now removed from our lists, were species already disappearing when the study of entomology first com- menced. It is possible that B. dia is one of those Butterflies which may have been formerly common, but are now on the verge of extinction in England ; for it is not a species likely to be accidentally introduced into this country. EXOTIC GENERA ALLIED TO ARGYNNIS. There are several genera closely allied to Argynnis (as 70 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. regards the colour of the upper surface of the wings) in Asia, Africa, and America, but none possess the characteristic silvery markings on the under surface. Several of these are adorned with transverse rows of spots, which are sometimes occllated on the under surface. Ethiopian Region. There are only two genera of this group found in Africa, if we except Argynnis itself, the South European species of which extend to the African coast of the Mediterranean. One of these, Lachnoptera, Doubleday, contains a few species confined to Africa. The best known of these is the West African L. iole (Fabricius), in which the sexes are very dis- similar, an unusual character in the present group. The male is tawny above, with a marginal black line, a festooned sub- marginal line, and within it a row of black spots. The hind- wings are slightly angulated, and have two festooned sub- marginal lines, and no marginal line ; the apical half of the hind-wing has a large dark patch, by which this Butterfly can be at once distinguished from any other, and there are two black spots towards the anal angle. On the under surface the colour is yellowish-tawny, and on the hind-wings the dark patch has disappeared, but there is an interrupted row of black spots across the wings, more or less distinctly pupillated with white, and edged within with a pearly-grey band. The female, which was originally described by Hewitson, under the name of Harma hecatcea, is brown, with the outer half of the wings white nearly to the hind-margin, the white space being bordered and intersected with brown lines. There are four brown spots on the hind-wings, on the white band, two towards the costa, and two towards the anal angle. The under side is pearly-grey, with a slight pinkish lustre, and marked with brown and tawny lines on the hind-wings ; there are three eyes towards the costa, and two near the anal angle, CIRRHOCHROA. 71 pupilled with white. A closely allied species, L. ayresii Trimen, is found at Natal, but in this case both sexes are reddish- fulvous, with a black blotch on the middle of the costa of the fore-wings. It is described as a very pugnacious insect, flying up and down at the edges of woods at a height of from six to ten feet from the ground, and attacking and driving away other Butterflies. The only other African genus allied to Argynnis, which we need notice, is Atella of Doubleday. The few species much resemble the East Indian forms to be noticed in the next section. One of them, A tella phalan fa, Drury, is found in both the Ethiopian and Indian Regions. Indian and Austro- Malay an Regions. These Regions, which it is often most convenient to treat as one, as in the present case, possess several remarkable genera of the Argynnis group, in addition to Argynnis, Ccthosia and Cynthia, which we have already discussed. They all extend to India or South China (except, perhaps, Terinos), and are represented by numerous species in the different islands between India and Australia. Among these genera, Terinos of Boisduval is one of the most remarkable, as it departs altogether from the usual style of coloration in the group. It consists of handsome Butter- flies, usually measuring above three inches across the wings, which are dark brown or black, often adorned with masses of rich purple above, and paler below, with a row of large black spots on the disc, bordered within by a festooned grey or purplish-grey line. Many species are adorned with grey or reddish blotches towards the tips of the fore-wings, and the anal angle of the hind-wings. The fore-wings are longer than the hind-wings, and the latter are somewhat angulated and dentated. The genus Cirrochroa, Doubleday, brings us back to the K 72 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. familiar tawny colouring of Argvnnis, and the species are of about the same size as our English ones, measuring three inches across, or rather less, but the fore-wings are shorter, and the hind-wings are rather long and less rounded. These Butter- flies are tawny above, with brown borders, and with festooned sub-marginal lines, followed by an inner row of spots. On the under surface they are paler, and generally ornamented with one or two straight brown lines, often edged with white. The genus Messaras, Doubleday, includes species measuring rather less than three inches in expanse. The fore-wings are longer than the hind-wings, and the latter are rounded and scalloped. The wings are tawny, and the hind-margin of the fore-wings is generally brown, edged within by a broad yellowish band ; the hind-wings are marked with several fes- tooned lines, and an inner row of spots, and on the under side usually with a row of large sub-marginal black spots, more or less bordered with pearly-white lines ; sometimes these markings are reproduced above. Other species are uniform brown, with a broad orange-yellow band across both wings. The last genera of this group belonging to these regions which we shall notice are Atella, Doubleday, and Cupha, Billberg. In these genera the fore-wings are longer and more pointed than in Messaras, but the hind-wings are rounded and scalloped. As in so many of the Eastern Argyn- nides, the wings are tawny, often with narrow brown borders, festooned sub-marginal lines, and at least one inner row of black spots. On the under surface the markings are somewhat irregular, purplish-brown and pearly-grey. The largest species measure nearly three inches in expanse, but many of those in- habiting the islands are much smaller. This genus has similar habits to Argynnis, to which it is allied, and the larvae feed on various trees, especially willow. Cupha may be dis- tinguished from Atella by the slightly angulated hind-wings. MELIT^EA. 73 Neardic and Neotropical Regions. As already mentioned, Argynnis is better represented in temperate America than almost any other genus of the larger Butterflies ; while Brenthis, though not numerous in American species, extends down to Chili and the extreme south-west of South America. There are, however, two interesting genera of the Argynnis group which are peculiar to America, Clothilda, Blanchard, and Euptoieta, Doubleday. Clothilda is a very handsome genus, consisting of large Butterflies measuring four inches across the wings, and greatly resembling Argynnis. There are several species inhabiting the larger West Indian Islands which are brownish-tawny, with transverse rows of large brown spots, the under surface of the hind-wings marked with irregularly undulated yellowish and whitish lines and spaces on a darker ground. On the main- land of Mexico and Central America we find still handsomer brown and yellowish-grey species, which become black towards the base of the fore-wings, with the middle third of the wing on both sides filled up with alternate black and rosy markings. Euptoieta is found in all parts of America, frequenting open grassy country. There are, however, only two or three species measuring from two to nearly three inches across the wings. They much resemble the non-caudate group of Atella in shape, size, and markings, but the fore-wings are longer at the apex, and the under surface is much more uniform in colour, without whitish lines, or distinctly-formed eyes ; though a row of small sub-marginal white spots, corresponding to larger black ones above, is sometimes visible. GENUS MELIT/EA. Melitcea, Fabr. in Illiger, Mag. Insekt., vi., p. 284 (1807); Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 177 (1848); Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 120 (18S7). Type M. cinxia (Linn.). K 2 74 Lloyd's natural history. The genus Melitcea includes all the smaller European Fritil- laries which are not marked with silver or purplish on the under surface, except the Duke of Burgundy Fritillary (Nemeo- bius lucina). This is the only British, and indeed almost the only European, representative of the family Lemoniidce, and consequently a species which will find its proper place in our second volume. N. lucina, apart from its structural differ- ences and much smaller size, may be at once distinguished by the prevailing colour being blackish, with tawny spots, all isolated, and those towards the margins of the hind-wings enclosing black dots. The generic characters of Melitcsa are similar to those of Brcnthis ; the club of the antennae is moderately long, very large and flattened, and the fore-wings are rather longer than in Brcnthis, with no median spur, and the hind-margins of all the wings are rounded and slightly denticulated. The tibia? and tarsi of the four hinder legs are furnished with two or three rows of bristles on the under side only. The palpi are hairy, but not thickened. The larva? are provided with short hairy warts, but are not set with branding spines, as in Argynnis and Brent his. The genus Melitcza is widely spread throughout the Palce- arctic Region, and is likewise found in North America, where it is especially numerous in California. Most of the North American species belong to a peculiar group, generally exceed- ing the European species in size, and of a black colour, more or less spotted with white and red. But in South America the genus is replaced by the allied genera Phyciodes, Hiibner, and Eresia, Boisduval, the former of which is likewise numerous in North America. Our three British species of Melitcza are representative jfthe three European groups of the genus. The larva? feed on plantain, scabious, and other plants growing on waste ground, PLATE XV. /. 2.JBrervthis srlenr. 3. l L Metitcea. aurima 5. 6. .. nvroTiiti MELI17EA. 75 and as over-cultivation rapidly exterminates such plants, and as insects as a rule are far less generally distributed, and much more easily destroyed than the plants on which they feed, it is not surprising that the species of Melitcea are among those Butterflies which are rapidly becoming more and more scarce and local in England, and are within measurable distance of extinction as British species. They are gregarious, and are therefore still common in those localities where they are permitted to exist at all. A century ago they were probably as generally distributed in England as they are at present in most places on the Continent. Their absence in Corsica and Sardinia is somewhat remarkable. These Butterflies have a slow flight, flitting from flower to flower on heaths, meadows, open places in woods, and similar localities where their food-plants are to be met with. THE GREASY FRITILLARY. MELIT/EA AURINIA. {Plate XV., Figs. 3, 4.) Papilio aurinia, Rott., Natuiforscher, vi., p. 5 (1775). Papilio artemis, Denis and Schiffermiiller, Syst. Verz. Schmett. Wien, p. 322, no. 10 (1776); Hiibner, Europ. Schmett., i., figs. 4-6, 653 (1803?). Papilio maturna (nee Linn.), Esper, Schmett., i. (t), p. 209, pi. 16, fig. 2 (1777). Melitcea artemis, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust., i., p. 32 (1827) Buckler, Larvae Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., p. 84, pi. 12, fig. 2 (1886) ; Barrett, Lepid. Brit. IsL, i., p. 196, pi. 27, figs. 2, 2 a-f (1893). Melitcea aurinia, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 15, pi. 8, figs. 3-a-d (1878); Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 183, pi 43, fig. 2 (1883). The Greasy Fritillary, though very local, is widely distributed in all parts of the kingdom, and is rather variable. It is by 76 Lloyd's natural history. far the commonest of the three British species of Melitcea. It appears in May and June, generally frequenting damp meadows, though it may be found in dry places also. It represents the section of Melitcea in which the upper side of the wings is marked with white or yellow spots, paler than the ground colour. This species measures about one and a half inches across the wings, or a little more, though some of the large South European forms, which are considered to be conspecific, some- times exceed two inches in expanse. The fore-wings are of a deep fulvous, marked with several rows of pale yellow spots, separated by black lines ; the hind-wings are fulvous, with some yellowish spots near the base, and there is a row of yellow spots across the centre, and a row of black dots near the hind-margin. The hind-margins of all the wings are narrowly black, and there are a few yellow dots within the border of the hind-wings. The under side is similar, but paler, and the markings are most distinct on the hind-wings. The whole of the under surface of the wings has a peculiar glossy appearance, which has suggested the name of the Butterfly. The larva is black above, with several rows of small white dots ; it is yellow beneath, and the legs are reddish. It feeds on plantain, scabious, and other low plants, in April. THE glanville fritillary. melit^a cinxia [Plate XL, Figs. 3, 4.) Papilio cinxia, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. x.), i., p. 480, no. 137 (1758) ; id. Faun. Suec. (ed. ii.), p. 2S0, no. 1063 (1761). Papilio delia, Denis and Schiff., Syst. Nat. Lepid.Wien, p. 179, no. 6 (1776) ; Hiibn., Eur. Schmett., i., figs. 7, 8 (1790). Papilio cinxia major, Esper, Schmett., i., p. 312, pi. 25, fig. 2 (1778). MELITVEA. 77 Melitcea cinxia, Steph., 111. Brit. Enc. Haust., i., p. $$ (1827); Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 15, pi. 8, figs. 5, a-d (1878); Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 185, pi. 44, fig. 1 (1S83) ; Buckler, Larvae Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., pi. xi., figs. 3, 3a (18S6) ; Barrett, Lepid. Brit. IsL, i., p. 190, pi. 27, figs. 1, 1, a-d (1892). The Glanville Fritillary is the most local species of the genus, and is at present almost confined, in England, to a few localities in the Isle of Wight. It represents a section of the genus Melitcea in which the under surface of the hind-wings is marked with rows of conspicuous black spots, and not simply with lines. It derives its name from a certain I ady Glanville who lived in the reign of Charles II. After her death, it was attemped to set aside her will on the ground of insanity, the principal evidence relied upon by the disputants being her fondness for collecting Butterflies. The species appears in May and June, like the other smaller Fritillaries, but, as a rule, prefers drier localities. The Butterfly expands about three-quarters of an inch, and is fulvous, with numerous black dashes and interrupted lines ; the base and hind-margins are black. The fore-wings are pale fulvous beneath, with a few black dots ; the tip is yellow. The hind-wings are fulvous, with some yellow spots near the base ; a broad yellow band extends across the middle, and there is a row of yellow marginal spots. The yellow markings are more or less bordered with black, and there is a row of black spots intersecting the central band, another row on the marginal series, and several others near the base. The larvae are black, with transverse rows of white dots, and the head and pro-legs are tawny. They feed on the narrow-leaved plantain (Plantago lanceolata), mouse- ear, hawk- weed (Hieracium pilosella), and the common germander speed- well {Veronica chamcedrys). They generally issue from the 7S Lloyd's natural history. egg towards the end of autumn, and pass the winter before they undergo their final metamorphosis. To protect themselves against the weather, they assemble in little colonies, and form a kind of tent by drawing together some of the leaves of the plant on which they feed, and covering the whole with a web of silk. THE PEARL-BORDERED LIKENESS FRITILLARY. MELIT/EA ATHALIA. (Plate XIV., Figs. 3, 4.) Papilio a thai ia,) Rott, Naturf., vi., p. 5 (1775) ; Esper, Schmett, i- (1), P- 377, pl- 47 (i777). Melitcza atha/ia, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 30 (1827) ; Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 16, pl. 8, figs. 7, a-c (1878); Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 121, pl. 45, fig. 3 (1883); Buckler, Larva? Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., p. 81, pl. 12, fig. 1 (1886); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 1S5, pl. 2, 2a-e (1892). Var., Melitcea tessellata. Melitcea tessellata, Stephens, I.e. i., p. 31, pl. 5, figs. 1, 2 (1827). This Butterfly is the commonest of the whole genus on the Continent, being abundant everywhere in woods and meadows ; but it is a very local insect in the south of England, though widely distributed ; it is met with in May and June, like the other small Fritillaries. It represents the group of Melitcea, wherein the species are characterised by being fulvous and black above, in varying proportions (but with no paler spots), and in having the hind-wings below yellow, with black lines and markings, but with no distinct black spots. It was for- merly a much more abundant insect in England than at present, and was common even on Hampstead Heath, MELIT7EA. 79 It measures from one inch and a half to an inch and three-quarters across the wings, which are tessellated in about equal proportions with black and fulvous. The under side of the fore-wings is pale fulvous, with the black bands of the upper surface only visible towards the costa ; the hind-mar- The Heath Fritillary {Melitaa athalia). Upper and under side of Varieties from the collection of the late Mr. F. Bond. gin is straw-coloured. The hind-wings are yellowish-broAvn below, with yellow spots near the base, edged with black, and a row of large yellow spots, separated by the nervures, across the centre, bordered and partly intersected with black. The fringe is yellowish-white, spotted with black. The larva is black, with two rows of small white dots on go Lloyd's natural history. each segment, and with tubercles of the same colour on the sides. It feeds on different species of plantain in May. This is a Butterfly which is liable to many varieties, and the central figure on the previous page nearly corresponds to the form called M. tessellata (Steph.). THE STRAW MAY FRITILLARY. MELITjEA PYRONIA. {Plate XV. , Figs. 5, 6.) Papilio pyronia, Hiibner, Eur. Schmett., i., figs. 585, 586 {c. 1800). Papilio eos, Ha worth, Lepid. Brit, p. 35, no. 43 (1803). Melitcea pyrotiia, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust., i., p. 31, pi. iv., figs. 1, 2(1827). Very dark varieties, or rather aberrations, of several genera of Nymphalina are not uncommon, and that represented on our plate is a sport of M. athalia. A specimen like the one figured is said to have been taken at Peckham in 1803; and similar examples have also been met with occasionally both in England and on the Continent. This insect, which measures a little more than an inch and a half across the wings, has tawny fore-wings, with the nervures, as well as some confluent markings towards the base, and a sub-marginal line, black ; the fringes of all the wings are spotted with black and white. The hind-wings are black, with a tawny spot near the base, and a sub-marginal row of tawny spots. On the under side the fore-wings are tawny with the tip and hind- margin yellow, and showing numerous large black spots towards the base ; the fringes have a black line at the base, and are spotted with black, and there is also a sub-marginal row of nearly connected black spots. The hind-wings are reddish below, towards the base, with black blotches ; the basal area is bordered by a black line, beyond which is a very broad whitish band, followed by a row of reddish lunules bordered on both sides AtfEMECA. ol with black; outside this, the marginal area is yellow, and similarly marked to the corresponding portion of the fore- wings. EXOTIC GENERA ALLIED TO MELH7EA. Nearctk and Neotropical Regions. The genus Melitcea is well represented in most parts of North America ; but in Tropical America, as before stated, it is replaced by several closely-allied genera, of which the most important are Phyciodes, Hiibner, and Eresia, Doubleday. Phyciodes, indeed, extends over the greater part of North America as well. These Butterflies much resem' le the small species of Melitcea, measuring from an inch to an inch and a half across the wings, which are generally brown, with red, yellow, tawny, and white spots and markings. The fore-wings are broad, and not much longer than the hind-wings, which are rounded, slightly denticulated, and frequently covered like the fore-wings. The species inhabit open or bush-covered land. Eresia includes species somewhat similarly coloured, but larger, measuring from an inch and a half or two inches across the wings. They are forest insects, with longer and narrower fore-wings than Phyciodes ; and many of the species greatly resemble small species of Heliconius, or some of the black and tawny species of the Sub-family Ithomiince, from which, however, they may be at once distinguished by their open hind wing-cells. Anemeca ehrenbergii (Hiibner) is a curious Mexican species, measuring about two inches across the wings, which are black, with long whitish radiating lines on the outer half. The hind- wings are very pale yellowish-white beneath,, with broad black nervures. The wings are rather long, the fore-wings being rather longer than the hind wings, and the hind-margins are rounded. 8 2 Lloyd's natural history. The genus, Chlosyne, Butler, includes several species found in Mexico, Central America, and the northern parts of South America, which form a transition from the genera allied to Mclitaa to the genera allied to Vanessa. They measure from an inch and a half to two inches across the wings, which are usually of a brown or black colour, more or less varied or spotted with yellow, white, or tawny above, and often with red spots on the under side of the hind-wings. The fore- wings are usually more or less produced at the tip, and the hind-wings are rounded and dentated. GENUS ARASCHNIA. Araschnia, Hubner, Verz. bek. Schmetterl., p. 37 (181 6). Type, A. levana (Linn.). We have not been able to find space for figures of this genus, but it is so well known, and of so interesting a type, that we must not pass it over unnoticed. It contains a very few species of small size, which are confined to Europe and Northern Asia. The antennae have an oval club, the palpi are very hairy, and the eyes are also hairy. The wings are denticulated, the fore- wings triangular, slightly projecting at a third of their length from the tip, and slightly concave from below this point to a smaller projection, situated a little above the hinder angle; the hind-wings are nearly square, with a slight projection at the outer angle. There are two very distinct seasonal forms in each species of this genus, viz., the spring brood, which is tawny with black spots; and the summer brood, which is black with white spots, which form an irregular band across the wings. Weis- mann and other philosophical writers have written much on the European species, as its seasonal dimorphism is con- sidered to throw some light on problems connected with the origin of species. ARASCHNIA. 83 THE MAP BUTTERFLY. ARASCHNIA LEVANA. Spring brood. Papilio levana, Linn., Syst. Nat. (x.), i., p. 480, no. 133 (1758) ; Esper, Schmett, i., pt. 1, p. 201, pi. 15, fig. 2 (1777); i., pt. 2, p. 55, pi. 59, fig. 5 (1780); Ochsenh., Schmett. Eur., i., p. 132 (1807). Cynthia levana, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust., i., p. 49 (1827). Vanessa levana, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 14 (1878); Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 167, pi. 38, fig. . 4 (1SS2). Summer brood. Papilio prorsa, Linn., Syst. Nat. (x.), i., p. 4S0, no. 134 (1758) ; Esper, Schmett, i., pt. 1, p. 205, pi. 15, fig. 3 (1 777) i i., pt. 2, p. 52, pi. 59, fig. 4 {c. 17S0); Ochsenh., Schmett. Eur., i., p. 129 (1S07). Vanessa prorsa, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 74, pi. 7, figs. 4 a, 6 (1878). Vanessa levana, var., prorsa, Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 168, pi. 39, fig. 2 (1882). Intermediate Form. Papilio porima, Ochsenh., Schmett. Eur., i., p. 124 (1807). Vanessa porima, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 14 (1878). Vanessa levana, var. porima, Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 168, pi. 39, fig. 1 (18S2). As already mentioned, this Butterfly presents two ap- parently very dissimilar forms, which Linnaeus called Papilio levana and P. prorsa, and by these names they have been known ever since. They are found more or less commonly in Central Europe, but do not reach either to the extreme northern or the extreme southern countries, though they are 8 4 Lloyd's natural history. met with in Western Asia and Siberia. A. levana has been said to have been taken in Great Britain, but apparently only through the error of Dr. Turton, who translated the " Systema Naturae " of Linnaeus into English many years ago, and marked various species as British, almost at random, e.g., A. levana. The summer brood (A. prorsa) measures rather less than an inch and a half across the wings, which are black, with a red marginal line. There is also a rather broad white band, in- terrupted on the fore-wings, and rather irregular, but broadest in the middle on the hind-wings. The fore-wings are also marked with a few white dots outside the upper part of the white band. The under side is brownish-red, with the white band reproduced ; the hind-margins are dull white, and there are some whitish dashes near the base. The spring brood (A. levana) is fulvous, with scattered black spots. There are also three white spots near the tip of the fore- wings, and a row of black spots across all the wings. On the under side the Butterflies resemble each other more than on the upper, but the under side of the A. levafia form is more yellow, and the white band is narrower and less conspicuous. The larva is spiny, and of a black or greyish colour, dotted with white ; the spines are black or yellow, and the fore-legs are black, with the extremities yellow. It feeds on nettle in June and September. EXOTIC GENERA ALLIED TO ARASCHNIA. The genus Symbrenthia, Hiibner, includes some East Indian species, measuring about an inch and a half across the fore- wings. They are brown, with fulvous markings, consisting of a band in the cell of the fore-wings, an interrupted one HYPANARTIA. 85 "beyond, and two or three on the hind-wings ; in some species the females are marked with white, instead of fulvous. In colour and markings, though not in shape, they greatly resemble Neptis, also an East Indian genus. The wings are very short and broad, the fore-wings being scarcely longer than the hind- wings, and the latter are obtusely angulated in the middle of the hind-margin, where there is a projecting angle ; the ex- tremity of the inner-margin is slightly sloped outwards, so as to form almost a right angle at the anal angle of the wing. S. hyppoda (Cramer), the commonest Indian species, flies very swiftly, but often settles ; its larva feeds on nettle. Hypa?iartia, Hiibner, is a Tropical American genus, resem- bling Symbrentlria, but larger (measuring two or three inches in expanse), and with longer fore-wings, which are generally strongly concave in the middle ; the hind-wings are more rect- angular, with a strong tooth or short tail at the outer angle. • They are usually tawny, with the apical region of the fore-wings brown, and spotted with white or tawny. In H. lelhe (Fabr.), a tawny species, the fore-wings are not concave ; while H. dione (Latr.) is a brown insect with darker transverse bands, and a rather longer tail, which might easily be mistaken for a species of Mcgalura at first sight, but for the concavity on the fore-wings. There are one or two species found in Africa, Mauritius, &c, which have a shorter interval and an additional tooth or tail, between the principal tail and the anal angle of the hind-wings. One of these, H. delius (Drury), which in- habits West Africa, is brown and tawny, having considerable resemblance to the South American H. lethe ; while other species, found in Africa and in the island of Nossi-Be', near Madagascar, Mauritius, Bourbon, &c, much resemble a rather small pale-tailed Pyrameis atalanta. Mr. Trimen states that their habits are very similar to those of Pyrameis. The larvae feed on nettle. 86 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. GENUS POLYGONIA. Pofygonia, Hiibner, Verz. bek. Schmett., p. 36 (18 16). Grafita, Kirby, Faun. Bor. Amer., iv., p. 292 (1837); Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., i., p. 195 (1S48) ; Stainton, Man. Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., p. 40 (1857); Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 124 (1887). Type, Poly go nia c. -album (L.). Antenna? with the club oval, gradually formed, truncated at the end ; palpi thickly scaled above, less so on the back and sides, and the scales small and conical, interspersed only with a few hairs ; eyes hairy. Wings with the hind margins much dentated, the fore-wings deeply concave below the tip, and the inner margin concave ; hind-wings with a short tail in the middle of the hind margin, and the inner margin grooved to receive the abdomen. A white letter-like mark on the under side of the hind-wings. This genus is peculiar to the Palrearctic and Nearctic Regions. In the Old World it does not extend to the Himalayas, though one of the Chinese species, P. c.-aureum (Linn.), has been, rightly or wrongly, reputed to occur as far south as Penang. There are only two recognised European species, one, P. c.-album (Linn.), generally distributed, while the other, P. egea (Cramer), a lighter-coloured species, with a triangular, instead of a semicircular, white mark on the hind-wings beneath, belongs to the Mediterranean Sub-region, being found in South Europe, Asia Minor, and Syria. Polygonia, however, is one of the very few genera of Butterflies that are better represented in the Nearctic than in the Pala;arctic Region ; and, in addition to species allied to ours, several very large forms, measuring nearly three inches across the wings, are found in the United States ; and one species extends as far south a? Mexico. PLATI ^1 f V - / 2 Polyqonia C album 3 Van*xS-*a pclycfilorvs POLYGONIA. 87 THE COMMA BUTTERFLY. POLYGONIA C.-ALBUM. (Plate XVI., Figs. 1, 2.) Papolio c.-album, Linn., Syst. Nat. (x.), i., p. 477, no. 115 (1758); id. Faun. Suec. (ii.), p. 279, no. 1059 (1761); Esper, Schmett., i., pt. i., p. 175, pi. 13, fig. 3 (1777) ) i-, pt. 2, p. 53, pi. 59, fig. 3 (17S0?). Vanessa c.-album, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 42 (1827) ; Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 13, pi. 7, figs. 2, a-d (1878); Lang, Eur. Butterflies, p. 170, pi. 39, fig. 4 (1882); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 12 r, pi. 18, figs. 1, 1, a-e (1892). Grapta c.-album, Buckler, Larvae Brit. Lepid., i., pp. 57, TS2 pi. ix., fig. 3 (1S86). The Comma Butterfly was formerly much more abundant in England than at present, and has almost entirely disappeared from the south of England, where it was once abundant, within the last fifty or sixty years, though there are many localities in the midland and northern counties of England, as well as in Wales, where it may still be met with. It is a hedgerow insect, and is fond of settling on the ground and on the tree-trunks, and is frequently found in company with Vanessa polychlorus. It appears in June and July, and hibernated specimens are sometimes seen in spring. The Comma Butterfly usually measures nearly two inches across the wings, which are deep fulvous, with the hind- margins brown. The fore-wings have three black spots on the costa, three in the centre, and one on the inner margin. The hind-wings are ornamented with black and brown. The under surface is sometimes dark brown, but is often varied with greenish or yellowish, and there is always a white mark like the letter C on the under side of the hind-wings. The larva is reddish in front and white behind. The head L 33 Lloyd's natural history. is nearly heart-shaped, and bears two large hairy tubercles, one on each side, resembling ears. It is found in June and July, and consumes the foliage of various trees, shrubs, and herba- ceous plants, such as the elm, willow, currant, hazel, honey- suckle, and common nettle. GENUS VANESSA. Vanessa, Fabr. in Illiger, Mag. Insekt., vi., p. 281 (iS 7); Latr., Enc. Meth., ix., pp. 10, 291 (1S19); Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 195 (1S4S); Schatz, Exot. Schmett, ii., p. 124 (1S87). Type, V. polychloriis (L.). Antennae, with the club gradually thickened and rather long, the last joint short and obtuse. Palpi thickly clothed with broad scales in front, and set with long stiff bristles all round ; eyes hairy. Wings dentated, the fore-wings with a slight projec- tion below the tip and with a slight concavity below, the inner margin nearly straight ; hind-wings with a short projection in the middle of the hind margin. Larvse gregarious, spiny, except on the first segment behind the head ; pupa frequently metallic. This genus is peculiar to the northern hemisphere, and though not very numerous in species, contains some of our commonest and handsomest Butterflies, such as the Peaccck and the Tortoise-shells. Most of the species inhabit the tem- perate climates of Europe, Asia, and America, but one or two extend as far south as India, Ceylon, and the Malay Peninsula; as well as to Mexico in the New World. Most of the species appear in summer, and hibernate, reap- pearing in spring, often in fairly good condition. VANESSA. 89 THE LARGE TORTOISE-SHELL. VANESSA POLYCHLORUS. {Plate XVI., Fig. 3.) Papilio poiychhros, Linn., Syst. Nat. (x.), i., p. 477, no. 113 (175S); id. Faun. Suec. (ii.), p. 27s, no. 1057 (1761); Esper, Schmett., i., pt. 1, p. 166, pi. 13, fig. 1 (1777). Vanessa polychloros, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i.,. p. 42 (1827); Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 22, pi. 6, fi S- 5 ( lS 7S), Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 171, pi. 39) fig. 5 (1882); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 127, pi. 18, figs. 2, 2a, b ([S92); Buckler, Larvae Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., p. 54, pi. 9, fig. 1 (18S6). The Large Tortoise-shell Butterfly is not uncommon in many parts of the south of England, in and near woods, or flying about detached trees, on the trunks of which it frequently settles. It may sometimes be seen in gardens, settling on flowers, but less frequently. It appears in summer and autumn, and hibernated specimens, much duller in colour than the newly-emerged individuals, may be found in early spring. The Butterfly measures two and a half inches, or more, across the wings, which are of a deep fulvous with rather broad black margins. The fore -wings are marked with three rather large black costal blotches, separated by pale yellow spots ; there are also three black spots in the centre of the wings, and a fourth near the hinder angle. The hind-wings have a large black blotch in the centre of the costa, bounded externally by a pale yellow blotch, and only the border of the hind-wings is marked with blue lunules. The under side is dull brown, with a yellowish mark in the middle of the hind-wings. The larva is blackish or brownish, with a yellow stripe on the sides, and the spines are likewise yellow. When youm*-, the larvae live under a silken web, which they spin for their protection, but they disperse after the first moult. They feed L 2 no Lloyd's natural history. trees, a habit which on the Continent causes the insect to be sometimes regarded as injurious, but in England it is not sufficiently plentiful to cause any material damage. The pupa is flesh-coloured, with golden spots. Two other species closely allied to this are found in Eastern Europe. One, V. xanthome/ana, Denis, extends to Northern India, and the other, V. v.-album, Denis, is hardly distinguish- able from the North American V.j. -album of Boisduval. THE SMALL TORTOISE-SHELL. VANESSA URTIC7E. {Plate XVIII., Fig. I.) Papilio urttca, Linn., Syst. Nat. (x.), i., p. 477, no. 114 (1758), id. Faun. Suec. (ii.), p. 21S, no. 1058 (1761); Espcr, Schmett, i., pt. 1, p. 170, pi. 13, fig. 2 (1777). Vanessa urtictz, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 43 (1827); Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 12, pi. 6, fig. 4 (187S); Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 173, pi. 40, fig. 3 (1S82); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 131, pi. 19, figs. 1, 1, a-c (1892); Buckler, Larvae Brit. Butterflies and Moths, pp. 55, 181, pi. ix., fig. 2 (18S6). Although this Butterfly is gregarious, and feeds on nettles, yet even nettles are by no means so abundant as formerly, and the species is thus much less common than it used to be. Still it is to be met with in all parts of the country, in gardens, weedy places, lanes, open places in woods, &c, and as it hiber- nates, and has a succession of broods, there is not a month in the year when it may not be found, for an unusually fine day or artificial warmth will sometimes tempt it from its hiding- place, even in mid-winter. The Butterfly generally measures about two inches across the wings, which are reddish-orange, with black hind-margins, spotted with blue on all the wings. The fore-wings have three black costal spots separated by yellowish ones, and the outer- Vanessa. 9i Small Tortoise-shell. Variety 1. Small Tortoise-shell. Variety 2. Small Tortoise-shell. Variety 3. 9 2 Lloyd's natural history. most separated from the hind-margin by a white costal spot. There is also a large black spot near the inner-margin, with a yellowish one outside it, and two small black ones in the centre of the fore-wings. The hind-wings have a broad basal area of black, with a wide reddish-orange band between this and the hind- margin. Theunderside is variedwith light brown andyellowish. The larvae feed on nettle, and when first hatched live together in small colonies, but disperse as they grow larger and require more food. They are blackish and spiny, with yellowish stripes on the back and sides. The pupa is beautifully gilded. In Corsica and Sardinia this species is replaced by V. ichnusa (Bonelli), an insect of a more pronounced red colour, in which the two small spots on the disc of the fore-wings are wanting. Other species resembling V. urtica, but more remotely, are found in North America and Northern India. We add woodcuts of three varieties which have been taken in England, one of which much resembles V. ichnusa. THE CAMBERWELL BEAUTY. VANESSA ANTIOPA. (Plate XVII., Fig. i.) Papilio antiopa, Linn., Syst. Nat. (x.), i. ; p. 47 6 > n °- i* 2 ( J 75 8 ) ; id. Faun. Suec. (ii.), p. 277, no. 1056 (1761); Esper, Schmett, i., pt. i, pp. 163, 324, pi. 12, fig. 2, pi. 29, fig. 2 (1777). Vanessa antiopa, Curtis, Brit. Ent., ii., pi. 96 (1825); Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust., 1., p. 45 (1827) ; Kirby, Eur. Butter- flies and Moths, p. 12, pi. 6, figs. 2, a-c (1878)3 Lang, Butterflies Eur., pp. 176, 363, pi. 41, fig. 2 (1882); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl, i., p. 140, pi. 20, figs. 1, ia, b (1892); Buckler,* Larva; Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., p. 52, pi. 8, fig. 4 (18S6). * Buckler received larvae from Leipzig, and the yellow-bordered specimen now in his collection in the British Museum was almost certainly bred from one of these. It is accompanied by a preserved larva. VANESSA. 93 This has always been a very scarce Butterfly in England, and very uncertain in appearance. In some years a good many specimens are met with, and then, again, several years may elapse without more than one or two being seen. The old authors sometimes called it the "Grand Surprise," because about the year 1789 it appeared suddenly in unusual abun- dance. It was also called the Cambenvell Beauty from having been first observed in England at that place in 1748. Curi- ously enough, it was unusually common in England exactly a century later, in 1848. All the English specimens are remark- able for their white borders,* whereas in the European speci- mens the border is almost always decidedly yelloiv. The Butterfly is also common in North America, but the American specimens are generally considerably larger, with the border ot a more brownish-yellow than in the European ones. It fre- quents woods, avenues, gardens, and detached trees, and is an insect of powerful flight, but is very fond of settling on fallen fruit. Once, on the Continent, I was walking along a road which was bordered with bird-cherry trees, and strewn with the ripe fallen cherries. The fruit was very attractive to these Butterflies, which were flying backwards and forwards in numbers between the road and a small river, which ran nearly parallel to it at no great distance. It used to be said that no British specimens were ever taken with yellow borders ; but a few yellow-bordered ones have occasionally been met with of late years. In these cases it is reasonable to suppose that they were specimens which had either been introduced from the Continent, or reared from Continental larvae and then set at liberty, in which case they would almost certainly fall a prey to the first prowling ento- mologist who happened to notice them. * This form also occurs, though much more rarely, on the Continent 5 and Lang specially notes its occurrence, with specimens of other Butter- flies closely resembling British examples, in Albania. 94 Lloyd's natural history. The Butterfly, which measures three inches across the wings, is of a deep purplish-chocolate colour, with the hind margins broadly white (or yellow in Continental and American speci- mens). Within this pale border runs a broad black band con- taining a row of large blue spots ; and within the band there are two short white (or yellow) streaks on the costa of the fore- wings. The under surface is of a deep dead black, relieved only by the white border and the white marks on the costa of the fore-wings. The Butterfly appears in July and August, and hibernates, so that it may be found again in spring. The larva, like the other species of the genus, is gregarious, feeding on willow, birch, and poplar in summer. It is black and very spiny, with a row of large red spots on the back, intersected by a black line, and the legs are red. No other species is known which closely resembles V. antiopa, though its black under surface recalls that of V. io. In Germany it is called " Trauermantel," and hence some of the American entomologists give it the name of the " Mourn- ing Cloak," Haworth in his " Lepidoptera Britannica," p. 28, remarks re- specting the irregular appearance of V. antiopa, and of other Butterflies : " There is something very extraordinary in the periodical but irregular appearance of this species, as well as of Papilio edusa and P. cardui. They are plentiful all over the kingdom in some years ; after which P. antiopa in par- ticular will not be seen by anyone for eight or ten or more years, and then appear again as plentiful as before. To sup- pose they come from the Continent is an idle conjecture ; because the English specimens are easily distinguished from all others by the superior whiteness of their borders. Perhaps their eggs, in this climate, like the seeds of some vegetables, may occasionally lie dormant for several seasons, and not hatch until some extraordinary but unforeseen circumstance awakes them into active life." PLATE XVII. /. Vanessa caxtiopa. 2. ,. to VANESSA. 95 Though very common in most parts of the Continent, there are many places in which the species is more or less uncertain in appearance, as it is in Britain. THE PEACOCK BUTTERFLY. VANESSA 10. (Plate XVII., Fig. 2.) Papilio to, Linn., Syst. Nat. (x.), i., p. 472, no. 112 (1758); id. Faun. Suec. (ii.), p. 274, no. 1048 (1761); Esper, Schmett., i., pt. 1, p. 87, pi. 5, fig. 2 (1777). Vanessa to, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 44 (1827); Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 1 2, pi. 6, figs. 3 a-c (1S78); Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 175, pi. 41, fig. 1 (1882); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 136, pi. 19, figs. 2, 2, a-d (1892); Buckler, Larvae Brit. Butterflies, i., p. 179, pi. 8, fig. 3(1886). The Peacock is one of the most beautiful of our British Butterflies, and as it feeds on nettles, is fairly common in lanes and open places in woods in most parts of the country, though much less abundant than the Small Tortoise-shell. It is found throughout Europe and Northern Asia as far as Japan ; but does not extend very far south, as it is a much-prized rarity in Sicily, and is unknown in Southern Spain and on the north coast of Africa. The Butterfly measures from two to three inches in expanse, and is of a dark red on the upper surface, with brown hind- margins. The fore-wings are marked with two central black costal blotches, separated by a small yellow spot, and the rest of the costal portion of the wing, between the outermost black blotch and the border, is varied with yellow, black,blue, red, and white, and below these markings are two white spots. The hind-wings have a large black crescent-shaped mark on the middle of the costa, and between this and the hind-margin is a yellowish-white ring, enclosing a very large black spot, in which 96 Lloyd's natural history. are several blue markings. The under surface of all the wings is of a deep dead black, as in V. antiopa. The Butterfly appears in summer and autumn, and hibernates, reappearing in spring. The caterpillar, which feeds on the two common species of stinging nettle in summer, is black and very spiny. It is dotted with white, and the fore-legs are red. This Butterfly has no resemblance to any other known species on the upper surface, but in the black under side it shows a certain affinity to V. antiopa. GENUS PYRAMEIS. Pyrameis, Hiibner, Verz. bek. Schmett., p. 33 (18 16); Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 202 (1849); Schatz, Exot. Schmett, ii., p. 125 (1887). Type, P. atalanta (Linn.). Antennae with the club short, and pointed at the end ; palpi long, gradually narrowed to a point, and clothed with soft and short hair ; wings regularly denticulated ; fore-wings some- times with a slight projection below the tip, the hind-margin below very slightly concave ; inner margin nearly straight ; hind-wings with the hind-margin rounded, and without projec- tions. Larva spiny. This genus is not numerous in species, but they have all a strong family likeness, and belong to two groups represented by our common British Butterflies, the Red Admiral and the Painted Lady. Both of these are insects of very wide distri- bution, but the other species of Pyrameis are found isolated in widely separated parts of the world, the largest and hand- somest being from the Sandwich Islands and New Zealand. Our species hibernate occasionally, but not habitually, and therefore are much less frequently met with in spring than in summer and autumn. PYRAMEIS. 97 THE RED ADMIRAL. PYRAMEIS ATALANTA. {Plate XXIII., Figs. 1,2.) Papilio atalaufa, Linn., Syst. Nat. (x.), i., p. 478, no. 119 (175S); id. Faun. Suec. (ii.), p. 279,110. 1060 (1761) ; Esper, Schmett., i., pt. 1. (i.), p. 182, pi. 14, fig. 1 (i777>- Vanessa atalanta, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust., i., p. 46 (1827); Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 11, pi. 6, fig. 1 (1878); Lang, Eur. Butterflies, p. 177, pi. 41, fig. 3 (1S82); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. IsL, i., p. 145, pi. 20, figs. 2, 2, a-d (1892); Buckler, Larvae Brit. Lepid., i., pp. 49. 174, pi. 8, fig. 1 (18S6). The Red Admiral is a very common and conspicuous Butterfly, which appears rather late in the summer, or at the beginning of autumn, and may then be seen wherever there are flowers or fruit, of which it is very fond. It is found in gardens, or flying about trees in orchards, just as frequently as in lanes or clearings in woods, and it particularly affects ivy- blossom. It often flies in company with its congener, the Painted Lady, over waste ground, and both species are very fond of the slopes or summits of hills. It has a wide range over Europe, North Africa, Northern and Western Asia, and North and Central America ; but in the Canaries another closely-allied species is met with, resembling P. atalanta, but with a broader and more irregular red band on the fore-wings. This is P. vulcania (Godart), an insect hardly distinguishable, except by its more intense red band, from P. indica, of Ilerbst, which inhabits North India, China, and Japan. How two forms, barely distinguishable as species, should have come to inhabit such widely-separated countries, between which they are scarcely likely to have been carried by accident, or even by design, remains one of the most perplexing of all the many difficult proverbs connected with the geographical distribution of Butterflies. 98 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. The Red Admiral measures from two to nearly three inches across the wings, which are of a velvety-black. The fore-wings have a slight projection on the hind-margin, below the tip, thus showing a closer affinity to the genus Vanessa than is presented by P. cardui; and this has led several authors to retain P. atalanta in the genus Vanessa, even when treating P. cardui as belonging to a distinct genus. The fore-wings have a broad red band running obliquely from the middle of the costa to the hinder angle, and between this and the tip are several white spots and a blue line. The hind-wings have a broad red border, containing a row of black spots, and a blue spot at the anal angle; the fringes of the wings are white, spotted with black. The under surface of the fore-wings is similar to the upper, but paler, shading into grey at the tip, and there are several additional blue markings ; the hind-wings are varied beneath with delicate shades of grey. The larva is dull greenish-yellow, or blackish, with yellow spines, and an interrupted yellow line on the sides ; the pro- legs are reddish. It is solitary, and feeds on nettle in early summer. It prefers the seed to the leaves, and usually pro- tects itself from the weather by drawing a few leaves round it, which it secures by silken threads. The pupa is brown, with golden spots. THE PAINTED LADY. PYRAMEIS CARDUI. Plate XV II I., Figs. 2, 3.) Papilio cardui, Linn., Syst. Nat. (x.), i., p. 475, no. 107 (1758); id. Faun. Suec. (ii.), p. 276, no. 1054 (1761); Esper, Schmett., i., pt. 1, p. 133, pi. io, fig. 3 C 1 777)- Cynthia cardui, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust., i., p. 47 (1827); Buckler, Larvae Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., pp. 49, 174, pi. 8, fig. 1 (1886). PLATE XVIII . /. Vanessa urtijcce 2.3. Pyrarrwis rarchu PYRAMEIS. 99 Vanessa cardui, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 13, pi. 7, figs. 3, a-d (1878); Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 15S, pi. 42, fig. 2 (1882), Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., 1., p. 149, pi. 21 (1S92). The Painted Lady was formerly considered to be an insect of rather irregular appearance in England, but it has apparently become more abundant of late years, for although it is com- moner in some seasons than in others, it is now nearly always to be found in suitable localities, when looked for. It is, how- ever, less frequently to be seen in gardens, &c, than P. atalanta, preferring waste ground, where it likes to settle on thistles, and Variety of the Painted Lady {Pyrantels cardtti). other tall flowering plants. It is one of the most interesting Butterflies known, for it is literally almost cosmopolitan ; and, with the exception of the Arctic Regions and South America, there is scarcely a country in the world where it may not be found. The Australian and New Zealand specimens, however, differ a little, and are sometimes called P. kershawii (McCoy), but are hardly to be considered truly distinct. A closely-allied species, P. virginiensis (Drury), or, as it is often termed, P. huntera (Fabr.), Is found in North America ; it is easily dis- tinguished from P. cardui by the sub-marginal row of small n 3 IOO LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. black eyes with blue pupils on the hind-wings. This species is found in Madeira and the Canaries, along with P. vulcania and P. car J u i ; but it scarcely admits of a doubt that it has been accidentally introduced from North America, as stray specimens of P. virgmiensts have occasionally been taken in England too ; and although it has hitherto only appeared in the British Islands singly, at long intervals, it is quite possible that if only a s : ngle brood happened to be reared in England, the species might become naturalised with us. The Painted Lady measures two inches, or two and a half inches across the wings, which are black at the base, and otherwise of a tawny-orange, varying in intensity in different specimens (sometimes with a slight pink shade in extremely fresh ones), and streaked and spotted with black. The tip of the fore-wings is broadly black, and marked with several white spots, and the hind-margin is also black. On the hind- wings the hind-margin is spotted with black, and within it is an interrupted black line, followed by a row of round spots. There is also a blue spot at the anal angle. On the under surface, the fore-wings are pink, with the tip yellowish-grey, but otherwise nearly the same as on the upper surface. The hind- wings are yellowish-grey, marbled with different colours, and marked with a large white triangular spot in the centre. There is a bluish line, scarcely divided into spots, on the hind-margin ; and within it are four black eyes in pale rings. The Butterfly appears in summer and autumn. The larva is very spiny, of a brownish-grey colour, with interrupted yellow lines along the sides. It is solitary, and feeds on different species of thistle, also on nettle, mallow, artichoke, and several other plants. The pupa is nearly of the same hue as the larva, but is thickly spotted with gold. Like other species of the group, P. cardui sometimes ex- JUNONIA. IOT hibits some very curious aberrations, one of which is figured on p. 99. GENUS JUNONIA. Junonia, Hiibncr, Verz. bek. Schmett., p. 34 (1816); Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 206 (1849) ; Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 125 (1S87). The genus Junonia and its allies are the tropical representa- tives of our Vanessa, from which they differ by their naked eyes. But they can hardly be said to surpass our Vanessa either in size or beauty, for though their colours are more sharply contrasted, the shading is not so soft, nor the colour so harmoniously arranged as in V. io, for example. In Junonia the wings are more or less dentated, the fore- wings broad, triangular, not much longer than the hind-wings, and the hind-margin generally more or less concave. The hind-wings are regularly rounded, rather long, and often slightly produced at the anal angle, though not to anything like the same extent as in Precis (Hubner), in which the anal angle is often lengthened out into a short pointed tail. The typical genus Junonia occurs in all the warmer parts of the Old World (Eastern and Southern Asia as far west as Asia Minor), and is also represented in various parts of North and South America ; but the greater number of species are met with in the East Indies ; and there are several species closely allied to the Indian ones in Africa. They are generally brown, banded or spotted with buff or tawny, and often with a large blue patch, or band, on the hind-wings. Two of the Indian species, J. almana (Linn.) and J. asterie (Linn.), are tawny, with at least one very large eye-spot on each wing ; but, in many species, the eye-spots are rather small. The larvae are set with branching spines, as in Vanessa. 102 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. JUNONIA ORTHOSIA. (Plate XIX., Fig. \) Vanessa orthosia, Godart, Enc Meth., i.w, p. 821 (1823); Lucas, Le"pid. Exot., p. 116, pi. 59, fig. 3 (1835). Papilo orithya, (nee L.) Cramer, Pap. Exot., iii., pi. 281, figs. E, F; iv.j pi. 290, figs. C, D (1780). This is a brown Butterfly, about two inches in expanse, with the outer half of the wings inclining to buff or yellowish, the colour forking towards the costa of the fore-wings. There are two eyes in the sub-marginal region of each wing, which are black, with large white pupils on the fore-wings, and surrounded with tawny rings ; on the hind-wings they are much larger, the pupils are varied with blue and white, and the outer rings are reddish, with a narrow black rim. Towards the hind-margin are two or three black lines ; and on the costa of the fore- wings are two tawny stripes, bordered with black. The under- surface, as usual, is paler. This Butterfly is found in Amboina. Some of the North American species ofijanonia closely resemble it in the unusually large eyes. It is also allied to the East Indian and African J. orithya (Linn.), which has blue hind-wings. GENERA ALLIED TO JUNONIA. Ethiopian Region. Although several species of Junonia closely allied to, if not identical with, Indian species, are found in Africa, yet the most plentiful of African Butterflies of the Vanessa group are the species of Precis (Hiibner) ; a genus, however, which is dis- tinguished by very slight characters. The wings are generally more or less deeply concave on the hind-margin, commencing with a projection below the tip, sometimes slightly marked, and sometimes forming a strong tooth ; there is also usually a PLATE XIX. A CyrvthxcL JuUaruz. 2. AnartLcL anuxttheay. PRECIS. I03 slight projection above the hinder angle; in some species, however, as in the bright blue Precis rhadama (Boisduval), from Madagascar, the hind-margin is hardly concave. The hind wings are denticulated, and the anal angle is generally produced into a point, and sometimes into a short tail, and there is frequently a more or less strongly pronounced angular projec- tion in the middle of the hind-margin. These are Butterflies of moderate size, usually measuring about two inches or more across the wings, and are generally brown, with tawny bands, or with the tawny colour spread over most of the wing ; while P. amestris (Drury) and its allies are blue, with a sub- marginal row of red spots. Sometimes there are one or more distinctly-marked eyes towards the anal angle of the hind- wings. Their habits resemble those of Vanessa. Salamis, Boisduval, is another African genus closely allied to Precis, but considerably larger, measuring three or four inches across the fore-wings, which are always sub-falcate below the tip, and then strongly concave ; the hind-wings are strongly angulated or sub-caudate at or below the middle of the hind- margin. There are also conspicuous sub-marginal eyes on the under surface of the wings, represented above by brown spots, but the one at the anal angle is well marked on both sides of the wings. The most characteristic species of the group are those allied to S. anacardii (Linn.), several of which are common in Africa and Madagascar. They are white or pearly-white, often mure or less suffused with a pinkish iridescence, and with more or less broad brown borders and brown sub-marginal spots. Other species are blue. Indian and Austro-Malayan Regions. Precis is represented by several species in these countries. They are generally brown, with darker transverse lines, and some of them are ornamented with a sub-marginal row of M 104 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. red eyes. The wings, as a rule, are much less strongly angu- lated than in many of the African species, and only slightly, if at all, produced at the anal angle of the hind-wings. The genus Pseudergolis (Felder) differs from Precis in the very long club of the antennae. The wings are dentated, with a slight projection on the hind-margin of the fore-wings above the middle. The commonest species, P. veda (Kollar), found in North India, measures about two inches across the wings, which are of a golden brown, with three black transverse lines, the outermost zig-zag, and between the two outer lines runs a row of black spots. Rhinopalpa (Felder) much resembles the African genus Salami's, but the costa of the fore-wings is less strongly arched. The tip of the fore-wings is produced, there being a slight pro- jection below it, under which the hind-margin is concave, but less deeply than in Salamis, nor does the hinder angle project so much. The hind-wings are rectangular or obtusely angu- lated, with a tooth or short tail at the angle. The colour, how- ever, differs very much from that of Salamis. The species of Rhinopalpa, which measure two or three inches across the wings, are reddish or tawny, with brown borders, or they may be brown, with a broad orange band across both wings. Dif- ferent species are found in Malacca, the Philippines, Java, Sumatra, New Guinea, &c. Neotropical Region. In addition to the American species of Junonia, the only other representative of this group is Napeoclesjucunda (Hiibner), a fine insect, four inches in expanse, with a very sharp projec- tion on the hind-margin below the tip, under which is a deep concavity. The hind-wings are rounded and sinuated, with the anal angle projecting inwards in a large obtuse tooth, and the outer part of the inner margin is deeply concave. It is a KALLIMA. dark brown Butterfly, with a broad blue band running across the central part of the wings between the middle of the fore- wings and the middle of the hind-wings ; there is also a blue spot towards the tip of the fore-wings. Bates remarks that it "is found only in swampy and thinned parts of the forest that clothe the delta-lands of the Amazons. ... It prefers the humid cacao-groves on the islands, settling on fallen fruits ; its flight is low, but exceedingly swift." GENUS KALLIMA. Kallima, Westwood, Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 224 (1850) Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 128 (1SS7). The species of Kallima are insects of considerable size. They are allied to the Vancssce, with the wings very broad in proportion to their length, the fore-wings pointed, and some- times slightly hooked, and the hind-margin first concave and then convex. The hind-wings are much produced at the anal angle, within which the inner margin is concave. The projec- tion usually takes the form of a short, broad, and rather obtuse tail. The wings are usually either brown or blue above, with a broad orange-yellow, blue, or white band running obliquely from the middle of the costa of the fore-wings to below the middle of the hind-margin. On its inner side there are generally two transparent spots, but the under side of the wings is far more remarkable, for it is always of a more or less varied brown or grey, exactly resembling a withered leaf both in colour and markings, when the wings are closed. A darker line, corres- ponding to the mid-rib of the leaf, runs from the tip of the fore-wings to the tail on the hind-wings ; and there are some- times lateral lines as well. The species of Kallima inhabit India and the Malayan islands. One or two are found in Africa, but they differ a little from the types of the genus, as the fore-wings are less pointed, and the resemblance of the under side to a M 2 106 Lloyd's natural history. withered leaf is much less remarkable. In the African species, also, the leaf-like pattern of the under surface is not always identical, and the same species often exhibits several forms of leaf pattern below. THE INDIAN LEAF-BUTTERFLY. KALLIMA HUTTONI. (Plate XX., Fig. I.) Kallima huttoni, Moore, Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1S79, P- I2 > De Nicev., Butterflies Ind., ii., p. 263, note (1886). There are several Indian species of Kallima much resem- bling the one figured by us. K. huttoni is a native of Northern India, and was originally described from Masuri. It measures three inches or rather more across the wings, which are of a rather dull blue at the base. The fore-wings are crossed by an oblique orange band, moderately broad, and running from the middle of the costa to above the hinder angle. On its inner side this is narrowly and not sharply bordered with black, and is rather irregular ; one of the indentations contains a small cblong transparent spot. The outer portion of the wing beyond the band is black, with a white sub-apical spot ; the apex of the wing is not very pointed ; the blue of the hind- wings shades into broad brown borders on the inner and hind margins, and there is a zigzag blackish sub-marginal line run- ning down into the tail on the hind-wings, and slightly con- tinued on the fore-wings near the hinder angle ; the under side is brown, speckled with black, and with a blackish line edged outside with dark reddish-brown, running from the costa near the tip of the fore-wings to the end of the tail on the hind- wings. There are also three dark brown stripes running obliquely towards it from the basal half of the costa of the fore- wings, tint nearest the base being the broadest, and continued across the upper part of the hind-wings. A sub-marginal zig- zag brown line runs across all the wings, turning inwards about PLATE XX / Z. liiUrtna \nttfom • ).iScffh* rvLeornAcLes 4. Thol-er-ovifi u>tu/i CORYPILEOLA. I07 the middle of the hind-wings, and running somewhat obliquely, and indented to the middle line. At about the point where the sub-marginal line is cut by the upper sub-costal nervure, another brown line runs obliquely to the central line, nearly parallel to the straight lower part of the sub-marginal line. Outside this inner line is a row of five very indistinct eyes with grey rings and small black pupils, the fifth, however, having a white pupil instead of a black one. On the fore- wings the oblique transparent spot stands just outside the cen- tral line, opposite the point where the first inner line adjoins it ; this spot is surrounded by a pale yellowish iris, like those on the hind-wings, and there is a row of black spots above it, between the nervures, running obliquely outside the central line. The sub-apical vitreous spot is also, of course, visible on the under side. This species is very similar to several others from North India, but may be known by its somewhat obtuse fore-wings, and the inconspicuous central vitreous spot. In some of the other species the tip of the fore-wings is long and pointed. The specimens in the British Museum are from Masuri and Nepal. EXOTIC GENERA ALLIED TO KALLIMA. In addition to the African representatives of KaU'una, we find the smallest species of this group, belonging to the genus Coryphceola, Butler, in Madagascar. The type of this genus, C. eurodoce, Westwood, much resembles a Precis in size and colour though not in shape ; it measures about two inches across the wings, which are brown, with a fulvous band, mar- ginal on the hind-wings, but sub-marginal and curving inwards to the costa on the fore-wings. The tip of the fore-wings is strongly falcate, and the anal angle of *he hind-wings, which are rather long and not angulated, is produced into a tail, curving slightly outwards. icS Lloyd's natural history. Indian and Austro-Malayan Regions. The species of Dolescliallia, Felder, measure three or four inches across the wings, but are, on an average, smaller than KaUima. The wings are narrower, the fore-wings being slightly produced at the apex, but not pointed or falcate, and the hind-margin is slightly and regularly concave. The hind- wings are rather long, with the hind-margin gradually curved, and are produced into a short obtuse tooth at the anal angle. They are reddish or tawny at the base, with more or less of the hind-margins, and the apical region of the fore-wings, black. They have no transparent spots, but generally well-marked eyes on the under surface ; and the leaf-like colouring is not more pronounced than in many other genera of Nymphalidce. There are several species, the genus ranging from India to Australia. GENUS ANARTIA. Anar/ia, Hiibner, Verz. bek. Schmett, p. 2,0 ( lSl6 ); Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 214 (1849); Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 126 (1887). This is a small genus of Tropical American Butterflies, resembling Vanessa, but belonging to the sub-group with naked eyes; and differing from all the allied genera in having the first branch of the sub-costal nervure more or less united with the costal. The wings are rather short and broad, with open wing-cells, and there is a short tail at the outer lower angle of the hind-wings. Only about four species are known, but they are very common insects; and Bates remarks: "The species have the habits and mode of flight of the Vanessa and Junonicz, and are found only in open, weedy, and bushy places, chiefly in the neighbourhood of towns." The larvas are clothed with long, soft, diverging hair on the LRGOLIS AND ITS ALLIES. 109 sides of each segment, and feed on Cassava, and other com- mon American plants. ANARTIA AMALTHEA. Papilio amalthea, Linn., Syst. Nat. (x.), i., p. 478, no. 118 (1758); Clerck, Icones, pi. 40, fig. 3 (1764); Cramer, Pap. Exot, hi., pi. 209, A, B (1780). Papilio amathea, Linn., Mus. Ludov. Ulr., p. 288 (1764). Vanessa amathca, Godt., Enc. Meth., ix., p. 29s, no. 4 (1819). Anartia amalthea, Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 216, pi. 24, fig- 5 (i847). This pretty insect measures two inches or move across the wings, which are dark brown, with a broad red band, variable in width, running from below the costa of the fore-wings, where it is bifid, nearly to the anal angle of the hind-wings ; on the latter it is intersected with a black line. Beyond this there are two rows of white spots on the fore-wings, and one on the hind-wings, and the fringes are also chequered with white. Towards the anal angle of the hind-wings are several red spots. The under side is yellowish-brown towards the base, and brown towards the margins, the white spots being distinct, but the red markings more or less obsolete. The body is dull black above, and the club of the antennas is tipped with reddish. The Butterfly is very common throughout Southern and Central America. The other species resemble A. amalthea in shape, but are brown, with white transverse bands, and tawny markings ; or white, with brown and tawny markings ; always with an ocellated spot towards the hinder angle of the wings. THE GENUS ERGOLIS AND ITS ALLIES. After Anartia we may place three genera belonging to the Vanessa group, which were formerly included with Elymnias no Lloyd's natural history. and some few other genera in a heterogeneous family called Eurytelidce, which is now abolished. The species are of rather small size for Nymphalid '*"W*JV~ u 1.2. CatcLgrarrvnicL astca^te 3. 4. HcematercL pyranvas. CATAGRAMMA. Ily C. rynjsura (Doubleday and Hewitson), a species quite distinct from C. astarte. The latter has frequently been mistaken for C. codomannus (Fabricius), the type of which (a male) is in the Banksian collection in the British Museum, and is from Brazil. It is flushed with rich purple, as in C. texa, Hewitson — a species differing much from it in pattern -and the red at the base of the hind-wings does not extend below the median nervure. The inner-margin is damaged; but the specimen is otherwise identical with C. miles, Bates, in which the yellow sub-marginal line ceases before the anal angle, and the penultimate blue spot throws a spur outwards. In addition, the upper blue streak is separated, not by a short yellow dash, but by a nearly continuous stripe. Of C. miles, Bates writes: "This species closely resembles C. astarte in the colours of the under surface, the inner part of the black band left between the two yellow circles touching the costa, as in C. astarte. It entirely replaces C. astarte on the Upper Amazon, and is an abundant insect, especially near St. Paulo,* where every day in the showery season numbers are seen even in the village, enlivening with their bright crimson liveries the dull, muddy streets." Cramer described this species from Surinam, and I am not quite certain that the specimens which stand in different collections from various parts of South America under the names of C. astarte and C. codomannus, and which vary con- siderably among themselves, really belong to the former species. They do not possess the two white dots on the upper side of the fore-wings, and the pattern of the under side differs a little, especially towards the anal angle, and the bands are yellow instead of ochrcous. Of course these differences may be due to incorrect drawing or colouring; but I have found that * This town, on the Upper Amazons, must not be confounded with the province of the same name in South Brazil. N 120 Lloyd's natural history. in many cases where such inaccuracies are suspected, the suspicion has only been occasioned by attempting to fit a description or figure to an allied form from a different locality, and that, when one gets the right insect from the true locality, the author and draughtsman proved to have been more accurate than was supposed. By applying this rule I have often been able to re-e-t blLh disputed species, the identity of which had been considered insoluble, and I am therefore inclined to believe that when an author condemns a description or figure as inaccurate, the fault is at least as likely to rest with the critic, as with the original describer or artist, though I once met with extraordinary discrepancies in figures made from the same specimen by different artists. GENUS II/EMATERA. IFicmatera, Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 231 (1849); Schatz, Exot. Schmett, ii., p. 149 (1887). This is a small genus, containing only two South American species, much resembling Catagramma % but with rather shorter fore-wings and more slender antennae. The hind-wings are mottled beneath, without the sharply-defined markings which are so conspicuous in Catagramma. HjEMATERA pyramus. Papilio pyramus, Fabr., Spec. Ins., ii., p. 130, no. 590(1781) ; Drury, 111. Exot. Ent., iii., pi. 23, figs. 3, 4 (17S2); Stoll, Suppl. Cram., pi. 32, figs. C. C. A. (1790). Hccmatera pyramus, Staud., Exot. Schmett., i., p. 122, pi. 43 (1S86). {Plate XXF, Figs. 3, 4.) This prettily-coloured Butterfly measures about an inch and three-quarters between the tips of the wings, or rather less. It is blue-black above, with a broad curved scarlet band, which extends to about the middle of the hind-wings. On the under CALLITHEA. 121 surface the fore-wings are red at the base, the apical half being brown, with grey markings. The hind-wings are irregularly mottled with grey and brown, and there is a row of bluish spots parallel to the hind-margins, which are yellowish, bordered with black and blue contiguous lines. This Butterfly is found in various parts of South America, as is also the type of the genus, H. thy she (Doubleday and Hewitson), which is smaller, with the red colouring of the fore-wings extending to the base. In the neighbourhood of Catagramma and its allies is to be placed another very beautiful genus of South American Butter- flies, Callithea (Boisd.). The species are generally considerably larger than those of Catagramma, measuring two inches and upwards in expanse, but they may usually be distinguished from them at a glance by the pattern and colouring of the wings beneath. The type of the genus is C. sapphira (Boisd.), in which the male is of the richest blue, with a broad velvety- black band running from the middle of the fore-wings to the inner-margin of the hind-wings ; the under side is bluish-green, with the inner-margin of the fore-wings black, and the hind- wings orange at the base, and with three rows of black spots parallel to the hind-margin. The female is black, with the base of the wings blue, the fore-wings with a broad oblique band of pale orange from the middle of the costa to the hinder angle, and the hind-wings with a dull green sub-marginal band on the lower half. Bates found this species abundantly in the dry woods near Santarem, sometimes even entering the town. The larva is armed with branching spines, two on the head being much longer than the rest. Other species of the genus are equally beautiful. They may be black, with or without purple at the base, and a marginal or sub-marginal band of blue or green on all the wings. Other species are blue or purple, with the basal half of at least the N 2 122 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. fore-wings generally orange or red ; in these the base of the wings is generally broadly orange or red. Different species are found throughout the northern half of South America, where they seem to be local, but gregarious, and generally abundant in their own localities. They may always be known by the sub-marginal black spots on as much of the outer half of the under side of the hind-wings as the basal colouring leaves green. It is true that one or two species of Agrias are simi- larly coloured beneath, but these are much larger and more robust Butterflies, with dentated hind-wings, whereas the hind- margins of Callithea are entire. THE GENUS GYN.ECfA AND ITS ALLIES. This is a little group of Butterflies peculiar to Tropical America, with broad, short wings ; the hind-margin of the fore- wings almost entire, and the hind-wings generally slightly den- tated, and produced at the anal angle. Callizona aceste (Linn.) is a tawny species, with more than the apical half of the fore-wings black, crossed by an oblique tawny band, and with white spots before the tip, the tip of the hind-wings being likewise black. The under side of the hind- wings is grey, with black stripes running obliquely outwards from the costa, and others running inwards to the inner mar- gin. In this genus, the hind-wings, though forming a rather long oval, are not denticulated or produced. C. aceste is a common South American insect, and is in the habit of settling on tree trunks, with its wings held perpendicularly. The larva is spiny, with short spines in the head, and the pupa has long appendages on the head, as in Ageronia. A still commoner insect throughout all Tropical America is Gynczcia dirce (Linn.), which greatly resembles Callizona aceste in its habits and transformations, but has shorter appen- dages on the head of the pupa. It is a larger Butterfly, gener- HYrOLIMNAS. 123 ally expanding over two inches, and the wings are brown ; the fore-wings having an oblique sulphur-yellow band running from near the base to just above the hinder angle. The hind-wings are sub-dentated, with a short truncated projection at the anal angle. On the under surface the band is white, and all the wings are more or less obliquely striped with intersecting grey and black lines, which are tinged with yellow towards the hind- margins. Next to this genus Schatz and Rober place Smyrna, Hiibner, which includes one or two Butterflies from Mexico and Brazil, which were formerly placed near Agrias, Doubl., bat the discovery of the larva proves that their true affinities are with Gyncscia. They are much larger insects, measuring over three inches across the wings, which are marked above nearly as in Callizona aceste, but are of a deeper fulvous. The hind-wings are dentated, and are slightly excavated on the lower part of the hind-margin, and then produced at the anal angle into two short obtuse prominences, with a slight depres- sion between them. The under side of the hind-wings is brown, covered with a number of bluish-grey curving and un- dulating lines ; towards the centre runs a straight broad whitish band, with irregular edges, and towards the hind- margin is a row of variously-coloured eyes in several concentric rings. THE GENUS IIYPOLIMNAS AND ITS ALLIES. Hypolimnas, Hiibner, or Diadema, Boisduval, as it was formerly called, is the typical genus of one of the most remark- able sections of mimicking species in the Nymphalincc. The Butterflies of this genus are large insects, generally expanding three or four inches across the wings, which are rather broad. The fore-wings are not much produced, and the hind-margin is generally slightly concave. The hind-wings are rounded, O." more frequently rather long, and more or less dentated, I2 4 Lloyd's natural history. rarely sub caudate or concave. The species are all tropical or sub-tropical, and are most abundant in the Indian and Austro-Malayan Regions, though the first two genera we have to notice are peculiar to Tropical America, and are distin- guished from the others by the strongly dentated hind-wings, with a short tail in the middle of the hind-margin. Victorina steneles (Linn.) is remarkable for its superfi- cial resemblance in colour to Metamorpha dido of Linnaeus, though the green is more broken into blotches on the fore- wings, and the cell is not filled up with green. The shorter fore-wings, strongly dentated hind-wings, and the black and tawny markings between the green blotches on the under side will readily distinguish it. Like M. dido, it is common throughout Tropical America, and Bates writes: "It fre- quents open sunny places, such as deserted plantations and the borders of woods." The species of Ampkircne, Doubleday, differ from Victorina in their shorter and broader wings, and still more in their colour. They are brown, with a white band across the wings, which is oblique on the fore-wings and sub-marginal on the hind-wings ; in V. superba, Bates, from Guatemala, the band is edged with blue ; and in V. epaphus (Latr.), the type of the genus, the apical region of the fore-wings is tawny. Th e smallest species of the genus, V. su/pitia (Cramer), found in Guiana, is brown, with a broad transverse white band, inter- rupted below the costa of the fore-wings ; it resembles a species of Ade/pha, Hiibner, or Pyrrhagyra, Hiibner, in appearance in the neighbourhood of which Victorina (which also formerly included Amphirene) has been placed by some writers. This species only measures about two inches and a half across the wings; the other species of the group measure nearly four inches in expanse. The species of Hypolimnas, Hiibner, are most numerous in HYP0LIMNA5. I2 5 the Indian and Austro-Malayan Regions. They are generally black, with blue and white markings; and the females are more or less tawny. One of the commonest species is H. misippus (Linn.), in which the male is black, with a white oblique band on the fore-wings, a smaller one at the tip, and a broader band or blotch on the centre of the hind-wings, all bordered on both sides with rich violet-blue. The under side of the fore-wings is paler brown, with a broad white transverse band, having a brown notch in the middle of the costal end. The female is, at first sight, almost indistinguishable from Limnas chrysippus (Linn.), but has a large black spot on the costa of the hind-wings, and no spots in the centre, where the discoidal cell is also quite open. It varies, moreover, in the same way as L. chrysippus. It is common in Tropica^ Asia and Africa, and has been introduced into the north of South America, 'in India and the Indian Archipelago there are a great number of closely-allied species, which used to be con- sidered local varieties of //. bolina (Linn.). The males are very similar to those of H. misippus, but the blue and white spots are smaller, and the white band of the under surface is narrower, duller, and not indented on the costa. The females, however, vary very much ; they are larger than the males, and sometimes resemble them, except in having a sub-marginal row of white dots; they are sometimes spotted and banded with white, with a large tawny blotch on the costa of the fore- wings, but sometimes they are entirely brown, with a sub-mar- ginal row of white dots, and a few blue spots towards the costa of the fore-wings. Among the other Eastern species are some which much re- semble Euplcea in colouring. Others belong to a group found in the Moluccas, &c, of which the largest and best known is H. pandarus (Linn.). This often measures nearly five inches across the wings, which are black, with a violet-blue i26 Lloyd's natupal msTORV. blotch on the hind-wings in the male, and connected sub- marginal orange markings. The female has two converging rows of large white spots on the fore-wings, and a broad sub- marginal orange band on the hind-wings, containing a row of oval black eyes, ocellated with pale blue. This band is repre- sented on the under side of the hind-wing in both sexes, and the blue pupils of the eyes are much larger. H. salmacis (Drury) is a common African Butterfly, four inches in expanse, and broadly banded with blue and white on a black ground. The African genus Euralia, Westwood, has rather longer and narrower fore-wings than typical Hypolinmas. The spe- cies are black-bordered, with white hind-wings, a white sub- apical band on the fore-wings, and a broader oblique one nearer the base, or a white space on the inner-margin. They mimic various species of the genus Amauris in the Danaince. PseudacrcEa, Westwood, is another African genus, which is usually placed in the neighbourhood of Hypolimnas, though Schatz and Rober consider it more nearly allied to Lime?iitis in its neuration. The species are black, with red spots and markings, or black and white, and closely resemble the larger species of Gnesia and Planema in colour. Some of the smaller species, however, which are found both in Africa and Mada- gascar, measure about two inches across, have shorter wings, green or white towards the base, and have but little resemblance to Acrmincc. There are several peculiar East Indian genera of rather small extent, which are almost confined to the Asiatic conti- nent, and are most numerous in Northern India. One of these is Heslina (Moore), the type of which, H. asstmilts (Linn.), is a common insect in India and China. It is about three inches in expanse, and is of a dark brown, with buff streaks and spots arranged in transverse lines on the fore- EURIPUS. 127 wings, and having streaks which radiate from the base between the nervures of the hind-wings, in the same way as in Tirnmala, and other genera of green Danaincz. The lower part of the hind-margin is broadly black, and marked with a row of large red spots. The hind-margin of the fore-wings is slightly con- cave, and that of the hind-wings is dentated and very slightly angulated in the middle. Calinaga, Moore, is a genus which was formerly regarded as allied to Pamassius, but is now placed near Hypolimnas It is brown, with broad dull white stripes radiating from the base, beyond which are larger spots, and then one or two irregular rows of spots between these and the hind-margin ; the thorax is red, and the antennae unusually short. The wings are almost entire. The insect measures about three inches in expanse, and is of a very peculiar form, the costa of the fore-wings being long, but the hind-margin is so oblique that the hind-wings, which are very long, and slightly angu- lated in the middle of the hind-margin, project far beyond the hinder angle of the tore-wings. The few known species are found in Northern India at a considerable elevation. Another curious genus is Euripus, Doubl., the type of which, E. halilherses, Doubl. and Hew., is a common North Indian species, about two inches in expanse. It is black, with the base spotted with white on the fore-wings, and streaked with white on the hind-wings, having also two rows of white sub-marginal spots. The hind-margin of the fore- wings is slightly concave below the middle, and the hind-wings are slightly angulated, with a deep concavity between the tooth at the angle, and the rather projecting anal angle. The female, which differs so much from the male that it was origi- nally described by Mr. Moore as generically distinct, under the name of Hestina isa, is larger, and has longer and more rounded wings. It is brown, with a broad oblique white 128 Lloyd's natural history. bar on the fore-wings, and a sub-marginal row of spots ; on the hind-wings there are two rows of sub-marginal spots, and long white streaks radiating from the base between the nervures. This insect greatly resembles the female of Danisepa rhadamanthus (Fabr.), which belongs to one of the genera allied to Euplcea. Several very handsome species which are now generally referred to Euripus are met with in Japan ; but they are very unlike the small E. halitherses which we have just described. The hind-margins of the fore-wings are only slightly and regularly concave, and the hind-wings are broad, regularly curved, and dentated, but not angulated or emarginate. Among these is E. charonda of Hewitson, one of the largest and most beautiful Butterflies found in Japan, measuring from four and a half to six inches across the wings. The female, which is considerably larger than the male, is dark brown, with large ochreous spots, which become white towards the base; from the middle of the base of the fore-wings runs a slender white line. There is a sub-marginal row of ochreous spots round all the wings, largest on the hind ones. On the fore-wings there are three oblique bands of larger spots, the first consisting of a dumb-bell-shaped spot in the cell, with two larger ones below ; the second runs from before the middle of the costa to the lower sub-marginal spots, and the outermost meets the sub- marginal spots at a third of their length. The hind-wings have three rows of spots, the second rather irregular above, the innermost composed of very large spots below, and very small ones above. The male is similar, but is rich blue on all the wings, from the base to the second row of spots ; all the spots on the blue ground are white, and there is a large red spot at the anal angle of the hind-wings. This splendid insect flies very high, and it is difficult to obtain good specimens of it. It is most easily taken when ISODEMA. I29 sucking the sap of trees, exuding from the burrows formed by the larvae of large Moths belonging to the families Zeuzcridcc and Hepialidce. Herona marathus, of Doubleday and Hewitson, is another North Indian species of this group, with the hind-margins dentated, and a slight concavity in the middle of each. It is brown, with a tawny band running from the base of the fore- wings below the cell, and three, partly macular, bands from the costa. The hind-wings have two broad tawny bands, converging at the ends, running from the inner-margin, and a sub-marginal tawny line towards the anal angle. Most of the Butterflies of this group resemble those of other dominant genera, and H. marathus is very like some species of Athyma, Westw., or Abrota, Moore, genera belonging to the Limenitis group, as regards, colour and pattern. Among the largest of the North Indian species allied to Diadema is Penthema lisarda (Doubleday), which measures between five and six inches across the wings. It is black, with broad buff radiating stripes between the nervures on the disc, and with large sub-marginal spots beyond. In the cell of the fore- wings are two or three long spots and stripes; the hind-wings having broad buff stripes at the base in and below the cell. On the under surface the wings are strongly tinged with rust-colour, except on the disc of the fore-wings. The hind-wings are dentated, and rather long. Another curious species is the Chinese Isodema adehna (Felder). It is of a dull black ; on the fore-wings a row of large white spots runs from near the base to the hinder angle; another short row from the costa, just before the middle ; and there are two rows of small sub-marginal spots. On the hind- wings is a single row of white sub-marginal spots, diminishing in size from the tip to the anal angle. The wings expand about three and a half inches, the fore-wings are short and broad, j^o Lloyd's natural history. and the hind-wings form a long oval, and are regularly curved and dentated. Among other North Indian Butterflies allied to Hypolimnas> Out with the costa of the fore-wings straighter, and the hind- wings rounded and but slightly dentated, we may mention StibocJiiona, Butler. The Butterflies of this genus measure three inches across the wings, with some rows of blue and white sub-marginal spots. Neurosigma siva, of Westwood, is a pale tawny Butterfly, expanding four inches, with large black spots towards the base, and zig-zag lines beyond, while the hind-margins of the fore-wings are broadly black, with two rows of pale yellow spots. Mynes, of Boisduval, a small genus confined to Australia, New Guinea, Ceram, &c, is placed near Hypolimnas, by Schatz and Rober, though it was formerly considered to be more nearly allied to Charaxes (Ochs.). These Butterflies expand two inches or more across the wings ; the fore-wings are short and broad, and the hind-wings are rounded above, but almost rectangular below, with a projecting tooth at the outer angle, the space between this and the inner angle being dentated. The upper side is of a greenish-white with black borders, varying in width, and sometimes reducing the pale basal colouring to very small dimensions. The under surface varies in a similar way, but is nearly always adorned with red spots at the base and in different parts of the wings, and there are often yellow or bluish-green markings in addition, to relieve the plain black and white. GENUS AGERONIA. Agei-onia, Hubner, Verz. bek. Schmett, p. 41 (1816); Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lcpid., p. 81 (1847); Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ji., p. 156 (1887). Type, A. cJilo'c (Stoil). AGERONIA. I3 1 Antennae rather long, slender, and gradually thickened ; palpi rather short ; eyes naked. Wings rather broad, with the hind-margins rounded, and only slightly dentated; cells closed by rudimentary nervines, the fore-wings with the costa arched, and the hind-margin regularly curved. "The larvae resemble those of Epical in \Catomphele\ Cal- lithea, &c, in being armed with branching spines, and in having two longer spines projecting from the summit of the head. They differ from the larvae of allied species in having, besides the shorter spines of the body, several longer and thicker hispid lobes proceeding from the second, third, fifth, tenth, and eleventh segments. They feed on the leaves of a succulent climbing plant on the borders of woods. " The chrysalides have a deep notch on the dorsal surface of the thorax, and two long flattened appendages proceeding from the head." (Bates.) Boisduval and Doubleday treated this genus as a separate family, on account of the statement of Lacordaire that the pupa is girt with a silken thread ; but on Bates discovering that this was an error, the genus was removed to the Nymphahd /. 2 Pyrantels ataianla 3 . Ltm eniti.y i >.caniHcb. LIMENITIS. 143 Paftilio prorsa, Linn., Mus. Ludov. Ulr., p. 303 (1764, nee Linn., Syst. Nat. 175S et 1767). Papilla sl/'llla, Linn., Syst. Nat. (xii.), i., pt. 2, p. 781, no. iS5 A i 767) ; Esper, Sehmett., i., pt. 1, p. 187, pi. 14, fig. 2 (i777)- Limenitis Camilla, Curtis, Brit. Ent, iii., p. 124 (1S26); Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust., i., p. 52 (1127). Limaiitis slbylla, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 23, pi w, figs 2, a-e (1878) ; Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 162, pi. 38, fig. 1 (1S82); Buckler, Larvae of Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., p. 36, pi. 7, fig. 1 (1S86); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. I si., i., p. 117, pi. 17 (1892). This is one of the many insects which are almost confined in England to woods in the southern counties, where it was formerly much more abundant than at present. It has an elegant sailing flight through the glades and along the edges of woods, and appears in June and July. The contrast of black and white in this Butterfly makes it a very conspicuous object on the wing. Its flight is sustained, but not very lofty. Haworth (" Lepidoptera Britannica," p. 30) remarks: "The graceful elegance displayed by this charming species when sailing on the wing, is greater perhaps than can be found in any other we have in Britain. There was an old Aurelian of London, so highly delighted at the inimitable flight of P. Camilla that long after he was unable to pursue her, he used to go to the woods, and sit down on a stile, for the sole purpose of feasting his eyes with her fascinating evolutions." The Rev. Revett Sheppard, writing in Miss Jermyn's "Butter- fly Collector's Vade Mecum " (ed. 2), p. 121, likewise says: " In its beautiful flight, when it skims aloft, it rivals the Purple Emperor, which it strongly resembles in appearance." (This appears to me to be rather an exaggerated statement.) "It seems, however, unlike the Latter to avoid the sunbeams, for it 144 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. frequents the glades of woods, where it rapidly insinuates itself by the most beautiful evolutions and placid flight through the tall underwood on each side of the glades, the insects appearing and disappearing like so many little fairies." The White Admiral measures about two inches across the w'ngs, which are of a brownish-black colour, with the fringes spotted with white, and a row of more or less confluent white spots across all the wings, interrupted in the middle of the fore- wings, but more regular on the hind-wings. There are also some white spots near the tip of the fore-wings, and an indistinct one in the cell, which latter is much larger and better marked in the allied species, L. drusilla (Bergstr.). Towards the anal angle of the hind-wings is a rusty blotch marked with two black spots, and there are two rows of obscure dark spots between the white band and the hind-margin. The prevailing colour on the under side is brownish-yellow ; all the white spots of the upper side are visible, with the addition of a few others, and most of them have a faint pearly lustre. The base of the hind-wings and the body beneath are pale blue, and the yellowish-brown portions of the wings are streaked and spotted with black. The antennae are rust-brown at the tip and on the under side. We add woodcuts of the under surface of the usual form of this Butterfly, and of both surfaces of one ol" the black varie- ties which are occasionally met with. The larva is green, with rust-coloured hairy tubercles, and a white line on the sides. The belly and pro-legs are paler, and the head is red. It feeds on honeysuckle in May. The allied species, L. drusilla (Bergstr.), is not uncommon on the Continent ; it has a bluish shade, a distinct white dis- coidal spot on the fore-wings, and a broader and straighter white band on the hind-wings. Owing to the confusion in the names, I append the principal synonymy of the continental species. LIMENITIS. 45 White Admiral [Limcnitis Camilla). Under side. Variety of White Admiral. Upper and under sides. 146 Lloyd's natural history. limenitis drustlla. Papilio sibylla, var. Drury, 111. Exot. Ent., ii., pi. 16, figs. 1, 2 (1773); Cramer, Pap. Exot., ii., pi. 114, figs. C. D. (1777). Papilio Camilla, Den. and Schiff. (nee Linn.), Syst. Verz. Schmett. Wien, p. 172, no. 3 (1776); Hiibner, Eur. Schmett., i., figs. 106, 107 (1794?). Papilio lucilla, Esper (nee Den. and Schiff.), Schmett., i., pt. 1, p. 351, Taf. 36, fig. 2 (1777). Papilio drusilla, Bergstrasser, Nomencl., iii., pi. 67, figs. 5, 6 (i779)- Limenitis sibylla, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust. i., p. 52, note (1827). Litnenitis Camilla, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 23 (1878); Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 161, pi. 33, fig. 3 (1SS2). GENUS NEPTIS. Neptis, Fabricius in Illiger, Mag. Insekt., vi., p. 2S2 (1807); Westw., Gen. Diurn.Lepid., p. 270 (1S50); Moore, P. Z. S., 1S58, p. 3 ; Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 152 (18S8). The type is NEPTIS ACERIS. Papilio accris, Lepechin, Reise, i., p. 203, pi. 17, figs. 5, 6, (1774); Esper, Schmett, i., pt. 2, p. 142, pi. 81, figs. 3, 4 (1783)- Neptis accris, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 22 (1S7S); Lang, Butterflies of Europe, p. 165, pi. ^8, fig. 3 (1S82). A black species, expanding from one and a quarter to two and a quarter inches across the wings. The fore-wings have a transverse row of white spots, interrupted opposite the white trifid basal streak, and the hind-wings have a white transverse band towards the base, and a row of white spots between this and the hind-margin. NEPTIS. 147 It is common throughout the East Indies, and Western and Central Asia, and is also found in some parts of Eastern Europe. The reddish-brown larva has two spiny tubercles on the third, fourth, and eleventh segments, and feeds on Orobus vermis in spring and summer. These Butterflies much resemble the species of Limenitis, the best known form of which is our " White Admiral," but the fore-wings are shorter and more rounded, and have no spur at the base of the median nervure. They are most numerous in Southern Asia, but extend to the border-countries of the Indian and Palcearctic Regions, and are found in China and Japan. Several species, too, are met with in Western Asia, and two extend to Eastern Europe. The genus is also found in Africa, but the species are less numerous there than in the East Indies. Nearly all the species are black or brown, with white or tawny markings, usually consisting of a streak from the base of the fore-wings, often broken into two or three parts, a broad band reaching across the wings, and a narrow sub- marginal line, more or less interrupted. One curious species, N. raddei, Bremer, is nearly black. It is found on the Amoor river and in Japan. Mr. Trimen describes the South African species of Neptis as frequenting wooded spots, where they flit slowly about the trees, and settle on the leaves, often with their wings extended. NEPTIS NICOMEDES. {Plate XX., Fig. 3.) Neptis nicomedes, Hewitson, Entomologist's Monthly Magazine, vol. 10, p. 205 (1874). Male. — Above dark brown. Both wings crossed at the middle by a broad band of white (oblique on the anterior wing, x ^8 Lloyd's natural history. transverse on the posterior), followed by a band of indistinct grey spots, and by three sub-marginal linear bands of white ; the inner band (which is most distinct on the anterior wing) broken into spots. Anterior wing with two white spots within the cell, the one near the base minute, the other broader ; a bifid white spot on the middle of the inner-margin. Under side. — As above, except that it is paler, and that the posterior wing has the base of the costal margin broadly white, and a linear white spot below it. Expanse. r6 inch. This species was taken in Angola by Mr. Rogers, one of Mr. Hewitson's collectors. The above description is copied from the original. EXOTIC GENERA ALLIED TO LIMENITIS AND NEPTIS. Indo- and Austro-Malayan Sub-regions. The Eastern species referred to the genus Limenitis are large and handsome Butterflies, sometimes measuring as much as five inches across the wings. They are sometimes green or greenish-brown, frequently with a transverse white band, but many species have the greater portion of the wings reddish- tawny, with a white band across the middle, or some large white connected spots in the middle of the fore-wings. Lebadea ( Felder), another East Indian genus, much resembles Limenitis, but the species are dull tawny and brown, with rows of connected white and brown zig-zags across the wings ; the tip of the fore-wings is generally whitish. They measure rather less than three inches in expanse. Pandita (Moore) is another small genus, including a few species found in the Malay Peninsula and the neighbouring islands. They measure two inches, or a little more, across the wings, which are broad and rather short, with the hind-margins of the fore-wings not concave. The wings are fulvous, more NEPTIS, ETC. 149 or less brown at the base, and traversed by broad, slightly un- dulating brown lines. The genera Ifeftis, Athyma, and Abrota are all very similar in colour and markings, and are all confined to the Eastern Hemisphere, except Neptis, a few species of which extend to Africa and Eastern Europe, as we have already mentioned. They are almost all black or brown, with white or tawny markings. These generally take the form of a band, often more or less interrupted or macular, running from the middle of the costa of the fore-wings, and curving round to the inner-margin of the hind-wings. Beyond this, there is often an outer, narrower band, at least on the hind-wings, and often a row of dots or a sub-marginal line in addition. In the cell of the fore-wings is often a basal streak, either entire, or broken into two or three sections. Sometimes the male is white and the female tawny, or vice versa, and sometimes there is a white or tawny belt at the base of the abdomen. Parthenos, Hiibner, is another genus which is confined to the tropics of the Eastern Hemisphere, and which contains some of the largest and handsomest Butterflies allied to Li- menitis. They measure about four inches across the wings, which are more or less dentated, though the fore-wings are not concave; the hind-wings are often more or less angulated. The wings are generally dark brown, varied with green, lilac, or tawny, but there is always a row of large white spots running obliquely from within the tip of the fore-wings towards the inner-margin ; and from the base of the fore-wings, and the base of the inner-margin of the hind-wings, several short broad black bands run out into the wing. Ethiopian Region. The African species of Neptis, one of which we have figured, need not detain us ; they resemble the Indian species, but are generally rather smaller. 1^0 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTOR*. The genus Catuna, Kirby, is peculiar to Africa, and is rather varied in colouring, though not numerous in species. These Butterflies measure about two inches across the wings ; some resemble the genera Hamanumida or Aterica, in shape and colour, being brown, with large black spots, and buff mark- ings ; while C. ccenobita (Fabricius) resembles a large Neptis, with markings of a slightly bluish-white ; but the sub-marginal markings of the fore-wings are in the form of white arrow-heads. Some of the remaining genera much resemble the Indian genera allied to Enthalia, Hubner, but of these Schatz and Rober make a separate group, chiefly on account of the great dissimilarity of the larvae. Hamanumida decdahts (Fabricius) is a very common African Butterfly, not remarkable for its size or beauty, but for the peculiarity of its coloration. It is scattered all over with white spots on a pale brown ground, very much after the fashion of a Guinea-fowl, a bird found in the same countries. The under side is ochreous-yellow, with more or less distinct white spots. The Butterfly is said to resemble Pyrameis cardui in its habits, and often to settle on the ground. It has been stated that its colour, which varies a little, is assimilated to that of the soil in the different localities in which it is found. It measures rather more than two inches across the wings. Of the remaining African genera, four are rather numerous in species, and all are peculiarly characteristic of the Fauna of Tropical Africa. In southern Africa they are hardly repre- sented, and what is more singular, one genus only is repre- sented, by a single species, in Madagascar. The genus Aterica, Boisduval, includes species of moderate size, measuring two inches or more across the wings. The fore-wings are short and the hind-wings rather long and some- what narrow, the hind-margin not being rounded, but some- what contracted. The type A. rabena, Boisduval, the only CYMOTHOE. 151 species of this series found in Madagascar, is of a rich tawny colour, with the apical region of the fore-wings broadly black, and crossed by two oblique rows of yellow spots, the inner one formed of larger and nearly connected ones ; the tip of the hind-wings is also black. The rest of the species all inhabit Tropical Africa, and differ considerably in colour and markings. One, A. cupavia (Cramer) is black, with two oblique rows of buff spots on (he fore-wings, and a large oval spot, or short transverse band, in the middle of the hind- wings. The males of other species are brown, green, or tawny, crossed by daiker bands or spots, while the females have usually an oblique white stripe across the fore-wings. Schatz has lately founded the genus Ctenandra for C. opis (Drury), a species which differs considerably from Aterica, especially in the slightly angulated fore-wings. The male, which Drury described as a distinct species, under the name of Papilio afer, measures a little more than two inches across the wings, which are black, with transverse blue stripes, and some white spots near the tip of the fore-wings. The hind- wings are narrowed as in Aterica, but are more distinctly den- tated, and are angulated towards the anal angle. The female is larger than the male, and is tessellated with large black spots and bands on a pale brown ground ; a pale yellow band runs obliquely from the inner-margin of the hind-wings to the middle of the fore-wings, and between this and the costa is a row of white dots; the hind-wings are broader and less strongly dentated and angulated than in the male. Cymothoe, Hiibner, is a genus including larger and hand- somer species, measuring from two to four inches across the wings. The fore-wings are usually more or less concave, and the hind-wings are more rounded than in Aterica, and often slightly produced at the anal angle. The sexes generally differ considerably. Some of the smaller species are of a bright red p 152 Lloyd's natural history. in the males, almost blood-red ; in the females, the margins and the greater part of the fore-wings are brown. In other species the males are yellow, varying in different species from a very pale straw-colour to a deep tawny ; and the females are black or tawny, with white markings, sometimes in the form of a white transverse band as in Limenitis, sometimes as white z'g-zag lines, and sometimes as large white spots on the fore- wings, a great part of the hind-wings being occasionally white. Euryphene, Boisduval, is another genus, allied to those which we have been considering. The males of many of the smaller species resemble Aterica, being blue, brown, or tawny, with dark bands, and the females are usually tawny or reddish, with two white bands across the black tip of the fore-wings. In one section of the genus, however, the hind-wings and the inner-margin of the fore-wings are of various shades of green, and there is a white or yellow band across the apex of the fore- wings. These species much resemble the genus Euphcedra in colouring, but the under surface is generally marked with a transverse or curved line, and the hind-wings are narrower and less strongly dentated. Euplitcdra, Hiibner, is one of the most beautiful and charac- teristic of all the genera of African Butterflies. Most of the species are of considerable size, expanding three inches and over, and always of conspicuous colours, fulvous, green, red, orange, or blue. The first group is of an orange-red, with the tip of the fore-wings broadly black, and marked with a large white blotch or band, and the hind-wings have a black border marked with a row of large white spots. Many African Butter- flies and Moths, of half a dozen families and genera, are marked in this manner, so as to produce a greater or less re- semblance to the abundant and highly-protected Limnas chry- si h u%. LIMENITIS. 153 Euphccdra perseis (Drury) is brown, with large yellowish- white spots on the fore-wings, and the inner-margin and the hind-wings, except the borders, are rose-coloured. E. zampa (Westwood) is green above, with a short whitish oblique streak near the tip of the fore-wings ; it has large white sub-marginal spots on the hind-wings, and more or less of the base of the hind-wings, and the greater part of the wings beneath are dull orange. E. harpalyce (Cramer) and its allies are brown above, with or without a transverse white or yellow stripe near the tip of the fore-wings, or they show a broad blue sub-marginal stripe on the hind-wings, tapering to the costa ; the under side is green. Other species are velvety black above, with more or less of bronzy green on the wings, and the dark apex of the fore-wings crossed by a white or yellow stripe ; the base of the wings is generally rose-red below, and sometimes above ; in E. xypete (Hewitsoi?) the greater part of the under side of the hind-wings is crimson. Neogean Species. Several species of true Limenitis are met with in the United States. They are generally larger Butterflies than their Euro- pean representatives, measuring about three inches across the wings, which are black, often with a white bar across, and with red spots on the under side, and sometimes also above. Most of the species have the wings more dentated than those of the Old World, and sometimes angulated. The prevailing colour is black or dark brown, with bluish markings ; but L. anhippus (Cramer) forms an exception. It is of a rich tawny or fulvous colour, with conspicuous black nervures, and except that it is considerably smaller, it closely resembles Anosia menippe, Hiibner, belonging to the Danaince, the commonest and best protected of all the North American Butterflies. p 2 154 Lloyd's natural history. But the principal American genus allied to Limenitis is Adelpha, Hiibner. The species are very numerous through- out Tropical America, and one or two species extend as far north as California. A special historical interest attaches to the genus, as it was these species which first turned the attention of the late Mr. Hewitson to the study of Exotic Butterflies. He was at first, in the days of Curtis and Stephens, a diligent collector and observer of British insects of all Orders, and was likewise a well-known ornithologist, giving special attention to oology. But the time came when he discovered, as he says, in one of his own works, that a Butterfly might be beautiful, even if it was not a British species; and he became thoroughly fascinated with the study, disposed of all his other collections, and devoted the rest of his life to the formation and illustra- tion of his great collection of exotic Butterflies, now in the British Museum. In its day, this collection had no rival, except the collections of Boisduval and "Wilson Saunders. As Mr. Hewitson used to relate to his friends, he was one day at Stevens' auction rooms, when he was attracted by a box containing several different species of Adelpha (Hiibn.), or, as the genus used to be called, Heterochroa (Boisd.), all much alike and yet all obviously distinct. This seemed to him a remarkable fact at that time, and he bought the lot. As he turned round he saw Professor Westwood, who said to him, "What! Are you buying Butterflies?" "Yes, I am," he answered ; and this incident turned the whole current of his life. When this happened, we do not exactly know, for though Hewitson's first papers on Exotic Butterflies were on the genus Heterochroa, they were only published in the "Annals and Magazine of Natural History " in 1847; whereas, in the pre- vious year, Edward Doubleday had commenced his great work on the " Genera of Diurnal Lepidoptera," which was completed DYNAMINE. 155 after Doubleday's death Dy Westwood, and was illustrated throughout by Hewitson. It is therefore probable that Hewit- son had already commenced the formation of his collection before that time, especially as he began to publish his own "Exotic Butterflies" as early as 1S51, and before the actual completion of the " Genera." But to return from this digression, into which the recollec- tion of an old friend has allured us, to the American genus Adelpha. These Butterflies are of moderate size, generally measuring about two or two and a half inches across the wings. The fore-wings are short, and the hind-wings are generally rather long, and sometimes dentated towards the anal angle, which is more or less produced. Most of the species have a transverse white or, more rarely, a green band across both wings, or on the hind-wings only ; sometimes this is reduced to a large spot on the latter. On the fore-wings there is usually a tawny band or large blotch towards the apex or surmounting the white band ; other species have brown hind-wings, and the fore-wings have an oblique red or white band, or a straight ferruginous one. Bates describes them as having a sailing flight over bushes and low trees ; like Limeniiis, also, some of the species will sometimes settle on the ground in moist places. The genus Dynamine, Hiibner, occupies rather an isolated position in the series of South American Butterflies. Bates placed it near Pyrrhogyra, and states that the flight is similar, but much weaker, and that the pupa is similar ; but Schatz and Rober refer the genus to the neighbourhood of Limeni- tis, on account of the short bristle-bearing warts, and the absence of horns on the head of the caterpillar, which is shorter and more cylindrical than is usual in the Nymphalidce. Bates describes the pupa of his D. leiuothea as green, with he dorsal surface of the abdomen reddish, and with two short 156 Lloyd's natural history. curved processes on the back, one at the base of the abdomen, and one near the front border of the thorax. Miiller, as quoted by Schatz and Rober, says the pupa has two short horns on the head, and two strong beak-like projections on the second and fifth segments. Bates does not mention horns on the head. More information is much needed respecting the transforma- tions of the various species of Dynamine. They differ con- siderably, and will probably be sub-divided into two genera. The pupa described by Bates belonged to the first section ; that described by Miiller probably to the second. In those of the first section, the sexes much resemble each other. They are white, with black borders, generally with a blue mark at the base, and with some white spots towards the tip of the fore-wings. On the under surface they are coloured nearly as above, but the margins are interlined with reddish, bordered with pale blue, and there are other reddish lines and markings on other parts of the wings. The hind-wings, except the base and margins, and sometimes a reddish blotch on the costa, are usually quite white beneath. These are among the smallest Ny»iJ>halincz, some of them hardly exceeding an inch in expanse, and might easily be mistaken for Le/noniidce or Lyccenidcz at the first glance. The species belonging to the second section are larger insects, measuring from an inch and a half to nearly two inches across the wings. The males are most frequently bronzy-green, with the margins, and especially the tip of the fore-wings, black, with green or white, or more rarely, dull yellow spots. In the male of D. erchia (Hewitson) a great portion of the outer part of the wing is orange. The green varies much in shade, being sometimes golden-green, or bluish- green ; but there are two or three species in which the males are of various shades of bright blue, with narrow black borders, and the tip of the fore-wings broadly black, scarcely, if at EUTHALIA. J 57 all, spotted with white. The females arc very different, being dark brown, with the tip of the fore-wings spotted with white. From near the base of the inner-margin of the hind-wings a white stripe runs obliquely upwards to the middle of the fore-wings ; this is sometimes absent. Beyond this is a much broader white band, generally extending over more or less of the fore-wings, and outside this is generally a third and more slender sub-marginal line ; occasionally the females are tinged towards the base with the green colouring of the males. On the under surface, both sexes are marked some- what as in the female above, except that the black part of the fore-wings is varied with blue lines and tawny lines or spaces. On the hind-wings, the dark transverse bands of the wings are either entirely tawny or are narrowly edged with black ; some- times, however, the hind-wings are nearly white beneath, with narrow transverse lines. The hind-margin of the hind-wings is generally much paler than above, and often presents a very characteristic mark, which, when present, admits of no mis- take respecting the genus. It consists of two large eyes, with white or blue pupils in black and tawny rings. INDIAN AND AUSTRALIAN GENERA ALLIED TO EUTHALIA. These form a restricted group closely allied to the African genera of the Limenitis group, but they may be treated as a separate section on account of the remarkable structure of the caterpillars, which are furnished with very long plumose appendages almost like feathers. The numerous and closely allied species of Euthalia and Tanaeria are almost confined to India, the Malay Peninsula, and the adjacent islands, but species of Symphcedra are met with as far east as New Guinea and Australia. They measure from two to four inches across the wings. The genus Euthalia, Hiibner, has triangular fore-wings, 158 Lloyd's natural histcry. and more or less dentated hind-wings, a little longer than broad. A great number are brown above, with straight or zig-zag brown lines ; the males of several species have blue borders to the wings, which become narrower and often cease before reaching the costa of the fore-wings. Many species are broadly white towards the borders and intersected with a zig -zag black line. Some species are ornamented with red spots below, and sometimes also above, while the larger ones, which measure four inches in expanse or thereabouts, are generally brown or greenish-brown, with white or pale yellow markings. The larvae feed on the mango as well as on other less familiar plants. Tanaecia, Butler, differs from Euthalia, chiefly in the ter- minal joint of the palpi being slender and bristle-shaped instead of obtusely pointed. The species are not very nu- merous, and inhabit the Malay Peninsula, and the large adjacent islands of Java, Sumatra, and Borneo. These Butterflies are generally under three inches in expanse, and resemble the section of Euthalia in which the males are brown with a blue border, and the females have a bluish white band towards the margins, intersected by a zig-zag line. Symphcedra, Hubner, has short fore-wings, with the costa very slightly oblique, and very slightly, if at all, emarginate ; the hind-wings are regularly rounded and dentated, but the species differ much from Euthalia in the arrangement of their colour and markings. One of the smallest and commonest species is the Indian S. nais (Forster) which measures a little more than two inches across the wings. It is of a rich fulvous colour, with a narrow black border, two short black stripes running from the costa of the fore-wings, and a black line or row of dots beyond ; the under side is darker, with some yellowish marks. Another, and larger, species, S. ceropa (Linn.), which is met with in the Moluccas, and is found as far as Australia, is Ar.vruRiNTE. 159 dark brown, with a broad fulvous band towards the margins ; these are narrower, and spotted with black in the females of S. dirtca (Fabricius) and its allies. These species are met with in the Indian and Austro-Malayan Regions generally, and are large and conspicuous Butterflies, measuring from three to four and a half inches across the fore-wings, which are longer and more pointed than in S. nais, which is the type of the genus. The males are black, with a sub-marginal green band, tapering in- wards, on the fore-wings, and a broad sub-marginal purple band on the hind-wings ; the under surface is rusty-brown, with the lower and outer half of the fore-wings black, spotted with white. The females are brown, with white or pale yellowish spots in the cell of the fore-wings ; an oblique band slop- ing inwards from the costa nearly at its extremity, and angu- lated below, where it runs to the base ; and a sub-marginal row of spots more or less tinged with orange. The sub- marginal spots are continued round the hind-wings, where there are three rows of spots running outwards from the inner-margin ; at their extremity they converge slightly, and the outermost curves upwards to the costa ; the under side is often suffused with pale blue. These Butterflies are easily attracted by fruit, especially pine-apple. SUB-FAMILY VI. APATURIN^E. Eggs. — Large, few in number, globular and hard, not so high as broad, with obscure ribs and cross-lines at the base only, usually forming tetragons, with minute projecting points at their intersection. Larva. — Generally green, smooth, slug-shaped (spiny in Aganisthus), tapering at the ends, with two or four protuber- ances on the head, and often a bifid tail. It feeds on trees. Pupa. — Short and broad, often with a bifid head, generally green, but not metallic. 160 Lloyd's natural history. Imago. — Very robust, and generally of large size, the wing- cells open, or closed with a rudimentary nervule ; hind-margin of the fore-wings nearly always more or less concave ; hind- wings often tailed ; antennae long, thick, gradually produced into a well-marked club ; eyes naked. Ran^e. — -With the exception of Apafura, which is found over the greater part of Europe and North America, the Apaturina are almost entirely tropical or sub-tropical Butterflies, and the range of the genca is usually restricted to a single geo- graphical region, within which that of the different species is necessarily still more restricted. They are. however, insects of powerful flight, but as they are forest-loving and mostly tree-feeding species, they never seem to stray far from the neighbourhood where they lived as caterpillars. Their habits are sufficiently discussed under the genera and species, which we now proceed to notice. Entomologists have never been in accord as to whether the Apafura group should be treated as a separate section of the NymphalineRi or not. I have already mentioned (p. 44) that the late Mr. Jenner Weir was convinced of the propriety of the former course, and I am glad to adopt his views upon the subject, as a tribute to the memory of a kind friend, on whose judgment one could always rely. GENUS APATURA. Apctura, Fabr., in Illiger, Mag. Insekt., vi., p. 280 (1807); Westw., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 302 (1850); Schatz, Exot. Schmctt., Li., p, 165 (1888). Type, A. iris (Linn.). Eyes naked ; antennae long, thick, straight, the club elongate- ovate ; palpi long, and projecting beyond the head, with the basal and terminal joints of nearly equal length, the latter conical and scaly, the intermediate one very long, slender, APATURA. l6l curved and bristly. Fore-wings somewhat triangular, the costal nervure very strong, the hind-margin sbghtly scalloped ; hind-wings with the hind-margin regularly curved and slightly scalloped ; front legs small and imperfect in both sexes, the tarsi often indistinctly jointed in the male. Larva smooth, with two horns on the head. Pupa likewise with a bifid head. The genus Apatitra is the only British representative of an extensive group oi Nyniphalidce with naked larva, which authors have usually included in the sub-family Nymphalince. It is widely distributed throughout the world, except in Africa; but the tropical species are generally much inferior to our own both in size and beauty, though one or two Indian and South American species are remarkable for the brilliant white or silvery colouring of the under surface. There are only two European species, A. iris (Linn.) and A. ilia (Denis), the latter of which differs from ours in having a distinct eye-spot towards the hinder angle of the fore-wings above, and in the more regular mark- ings of the hind-wings beneath ; and it has a tawny variety known as A. dytie (Denis). The European species are insects of very lofty flight, but occasionally descend to drink at muddy places in pathways, or they may be attracted by dung or carrion. They are by no means uncommon in various parts of the Continent, and may often be seen flying together. The male of A. it's especially likes to sport about the tops of trees, and generally seeks the highest elevation. I once took a specimen at rest at the top of a high hill which happened to be covered, not with trees, but with bushes. Haworth's account of its habits has often been quoted, but it is so good, that we may be allowed to copy it once more from his " Lepidoptera Britannica" (pp. 19, 20). " The Purple Emperor of the British Oaks is not undeservedly the greatest favourite of our English Aurelians. In his manners 1 62 Lloyd's natural history. likewise, as well as in the varying lustres of his purple plumes, he possesses the strongest claims to their particular attention. In the month of July he makes his appearance in the winged state, and invariably fixes his throne upon the summit of a lofty oak, from the utmost sprigs of which, on sunny days, he per- forms his aerial excursions ; and in these, ascends to a much greater elevation than any other insect I have ever seen, some- times mounting higher than the eye can follow, especially if he happens to quarrel with another Emperor, the monarch of some neighbouring oak ; they never meet without a battle, flying up- wards all the while, and combating with each other as much as possible, after which they will frequently return again to the identical sprigs from whence they ascended. The wings of this fine species are of a stronger texture than those of any other in Britain, and more calculated for that gay and powerful flight which is so much admired by entomologists. " The Purple Emperor commences his aerial movements from ten to twelve o'clock in the morning, and does not perform his loftiest flights till noon, decreasing them after this hour, until he quite ceases to fly about four in the afternoon, thus emu- lating the motions of that source of all his strength, the sun. The females, like those of many other species, are very rarely seen on the wing Moses Harris tells us that 'the females are not met with on the wing so often as the males, some of which are very plentiful, but the females rare to be seen, of which the Purple Emperor is one capital instance. I have been informed Mr. Whitworth caught thirteen in one day, and but one female amongst them.' "I can readily credit this, for in three days I took myself twenty- three (nine of them in one day), but never took a female at all. The males usually fly very high, and are only to be taken by a bag-net fixed to the end of a rod twenty or thirty feet long. There have been instances, though very rare, of their settling on APATURA. I63 the ground near puddles of water, and being taken there. When the Purple Emperor is within reach, no fly is more easily taken than him; for he is so very bold and fearless that he will not move from his settling-place until you quite push him off ; you may even tip the ends of his wings, and be suffered to strike again." In the satirical poems of i: Peter Pindar " (Dr. John Wolcott) published at the end of the last century, there is an amusing story of a tulip-fancier and an entomologist, and there seems to be no doubt that the Butterfly referred to is the Purple Emperor, though it is not a very likely Butterfly to be found in a flower- garden, and still less so to lead an entomologist a wild-goose chase over the beds ; for if startled, it would probably soar away at once to the nearest high tree in the neighbourhood. I know of no Butterfly called " The Emperor of Morocco " in any entomological work. The tulip-fancier was showing the entomologist his garden, and was descanting on his treasures, " When from a heap of dung, or some such thing, An Emperor of Morocco reared his wing." The entomologist rushed after it, trampling down all the tulips, regardless of the shouts of his friend, who came up with him at last, just as he had lost sight of the Butterfly. " Did you not see him ? " asked the entomologist. "Who ? What ? " asked the distracted tulip-fancier. " The Emperor of Morocco," replied the entomologist. The tulip-fancier mourn- fully relaxed his grasp, murmuring: — " Mad, madder than the maddest of March hares ! " THE -PURPLE EMPEROR. APATURA IRIS. {Plate XXIV. ; larva, Plate III., Fig. 6.) Papilio iris, Linn., Syst. Nat. (x.), i., p. 476, no. no (1758) j Esper, Schmett, 1. (1), p. 139, pi. n, fig- 1 (i777) \ ' l - ( 2 )t p. 109, pi. 71, fig. 4(i7 81 )- 164 Lloyd's natural history. Apatura iris, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust., i., p. 50 (1027); Curtis, Brit. Ent., viii., pi. 338 (183 1); Kirov, Eur. Butter- flies and Moths, p. 24, pi. 11, figs. 2, a-c (1878); Lang, Butterflies of Europe, p. 156, pi. 34, fig. 2, pi. 36, fig. 2 (18S3); Buckler, Larva? of Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., p. 42, pi. 7, fig. 2 (1886); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 105, pi. 16 (1892). Var., Apatura iole. Papilio iole, Den. and Schiff., Syst. Verz. Schmett. Wien, p. 172, no. 3 (1776) ; Esper, Schmett., i. (1), p. 376, pi. 46, fig. 1(1778?). Papilio iris, Esper, Schmett., i. (1), pp. 109, 114, pi. 71, fig. 1 • pi. 72, fig. 1 (1781). Papilio beroe, Fabr., Ent. Syst., iii. (1), p. 111, no. 341 (1793). The Purple Emperor appears to be almost confined in England to the south-eastern counties, and it is doubtful whether it has ever been taken as far north as Yorkshire. It is only to be found in large old woods, where these still exist. Although the caterpillar feeds on sallow, the Butterfly, which appears in July, is fond of flying about the tops of tall trees, especially oaks. It is still fairly plentiful in suitable localities, though no longer found close to London, as was the case less than a century ago. The Purple Emperor measures from two inches and a half to three inches and upwards across the wings, which are dark brown in the male, shot with brilliant purplish-blue, except on the hind-margins, which are of a light brown. There are several white spots towards the tips of the fore-wings, and also some larger ones running from the middle of the wing to the inner-margin, and continued as a slightly curved band across the hind-wings. Towards the hinder angle of the fore-wings is a rather indistinct round black spot, and towards the anal PLATE XXIV. Apatura, iris APATURA. 165 angle of the hind-wings is a conspicuous black spot in a tawny ring ; the hind-margins are also sometimes more or less inter- lined with tawny. The female is larger than the male, and of a paler brown, and the purple reflection is wholly absent. On the under side the fore-win^s are rusty-brown, inclining to black in the middle, with a large ocellus towards the hinder angle, corre- Purple Emperor (Apattira iris). Under side c f Female. sponding to the indistinct spot above. There are two black spots towards the ba.e, in addition to the white marks corre- sponding to those on the upper side. On the hind-wings the white band is broader than on the upper side, with its outer side more irregular ; the eye towards the anal angle is smaller ; and the base and marginal portions of the wing are greyish, with something of a pearly lustre, and with a faint undulating brown line running along the hind-margin. The body is black above, and the legs and under side are greyish-white. The figures in 1 66 Lloyd's natural history. our plate represent both surfaces of the male. We add wood- cuts of the under side of the female and of the upper side of the rare variety A. iole (Denis), in which the white band on the hind-wings is absent. Upper side ot the Variety {A. iole). The larva is green, with several oblique yellow lines, and with two horns on the head tipped with red, and with a yellow stripe down the outer side. It feeds on sallow, and sometimes on aspen and poplar, and may be looked for in spring. The pupa is likewise of a pale green, with a bifid head. GENUS THALEROriS. Thakropis, Staudinger, Cat. Lep. Eur., p. 17 (1S71); Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 166 (iSSS). This genus was founded to receive a moderate-sized, but very handsome, Butterfly from Asia Minor, which was originally described by Eversmann as a Vanessa, and shortly afterwards, by Herrich-Schaffer, as an Apatura. The discovery of the THALEROPIS. 1 67 larva, however, which is smooth and tapering at the ends, with two short horns on the head and a bifid tail, prove it to be allied to Apatura, from which the Butterfly differs by its hairy eyes and closed wing-cells. As the Butterfly is a species of considerable interest, and has only hitherto been figured in a few scarce and expensive continental works, we are glad to give it a place on one of our plates. One or two African species have lately been referred to Thaleropis, but it is not quite certain that they actually belong to that genus, THALEROPIS IONIA. (Plate XX., Fig. 4.) Vanessa ionia, Eversm., Ent. Russ., v., p. in, pi. 13, figs. 1, 2 (1851). Apatura ammonia, Herr.-Schaff, Schmett. Eur., i., p. 6, Nachtrag, figs. 542-545 (1851). This Butterfly is found on the southern shores of the Black Sea, at Amasia, &c. It measures about an inch and three quarters across the wings, which are of a yellowish- fulvous, sometimes varied with white and yellow. The base is broadly black, and there is a small eye at the hinder angles of all the wings. There are also some irregular basal spots. The under side of the hind-wings is blue or yellow, with a dark central band, not reaching quite across. Although Eversmann's and Herrich-Schaffer's descriptions and figures were published in the same year, the official permit in the work of the former bears date January 10, whereas the parts of Herrich-Schaffer's work, in which the insect was in- cluded, are only the third and fifth of the eight parts pub- lished during 1851 Q £ 63 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. EXOTIC GENERA ALLIED TO APATURA. Various species of Apafura, brown, green, or blue, with orange-tawny, or brown and orange-tawny, markings, are found throughout Central Asia, as far as Japan, where insects almost identical with the European A. ilia and its varieties occur. Most of the other Apaturce also unmistakably resemble those of Europe. Several species are found in Northern India, one of which, A. namouna, Doubleday, resembles A. iris, but is of a brilliant blue in the male, instead of being shot with purple, and has a satiny-white under side, with an oblique tawny band towards the margins of the wings. A. chevana (Moore) has a very similar under side, but is brown above (though with a purple gloss when fresh), with white markings like an Athyma, to which genus Moore originally referred it. Most of the other Indian species are much smaller, and duller coloured ; being dull brown, or only suffused with dull purple. The genus Chlorippe, Boisduval, includes the South American species allied to Apatura. The hind-margin of the fore-wings is more concave, and the hind-wings are longer, and much narrowed to the anal angle, which is sometimes pointed, and is sometimes preceded by a slight tooth. The species are rather smaller than in Apatura, and the males are purple, with white or tawny spots towards the tips, or banded with blue, green, tawny, or white; the females are brown, with white bands or spots, and tawny markings ; in some species the under surface of the hind-wings is of a most beautiful silvery white. The North Amencan representatives of Apatura, which are i laced in the genus Doxocopa, Hiibner, are brown and tawny Butterflies, measuring two or two and a half inches across the wings, with white spots on the fore-wings, and sometimes a sub-marginal row of spots on the hind-wings. CASTALIA. 169 Returning to India, &c, we find several small but interesting genera allied to Apatura. Eulacura, Butler, is represented by E. osteria (Westwood), which is found in Malacca, Java, and Borneo. It measures two and a half inches across the wings, which are brown, with a bluish-white band in the male, not extending to the costa of the fore-wings. The female has a bluish-white sub-marginal line, and a broad and somewhat irregular band of bluish-white within it on the fore-wings. The under surface is bluish-white, varied with pale tawny lines and markings ; towards the hinder angle of each wing is a well-marked white or tawny eye, with a black pupil. The fore-wings are much longer than in typical Apatura, the hind-margin being oblique as well as concave ; the hind-wings are regularly curved and dentated. The female much resembles some species of Euthalia and Tanaecia in its style of colouring, but its shape and the eyes of the under side (which in the female are slightly visible above) will distinguish it. Dichorragia, Butler, likewise somewhat resembles Euthalia. In the North Indian D. nesimachus (Boisduval) the wings are brown, with zig-zag grey and bluish-grey markings, and many large black spots The wings are broad, the fore-wings with the hind-margin only slightly oblique or concave, and the hind- wings rounded, dentated. and more strongly produced at the anal angle. It expands about three inches. Castalia, Moore, is another genus, including species with longer fore-wings, deeply concave below the middle of the hind-margin, and with the hind- wings rounded and dentated. The fore-wings are black, with bands of orange-tawny and white spots ; the hind-wings are mostly orange-tawny with black veins. On the under surface this portion of the wing is divided by broader black veins and intermixed with white spaces ; towards the base are some pale blue spots. The Butterflies measure about three inches across the wings. Q - 1 ijo Lloyd's natural history. Dilipa morgiana (Westwood) is another North Indian species, much resembling Apatura in shape and size, but with hairy eyes, and closed wing-cells. It is brown, with two oblique orange bands on the fore-wings, and a very broad one on the hind- wings ; as in Castalia, there are no eyes towards the hinder angles of the wings. The largest species of the Apatura group is Apaturina erminea (Cramer) from Amboina, which measures about four inches across the wings. The fore-wings are longer than the hind-wings, with the hind-margin only slightly concave, and the hind-wings have a rounded and slightly dentated hind- margin, and form a long broad oval, which is not contracted or pointed at the anal angle, as is more or less the case, at least, in the male, in most of the genera allied to Apatura. It is brownish-black above, broadly purplish-blue at the base, and with an oblique row of large pale yellow spots on the fore-wings ; towards the anal angle of the hind-wings is a large eye, most distinct beneath. This genus also has closed wing-cells. The last genus of this group which we shall notice is Belcyra, Felder, containing a group of white Butterflies found in the Himalayas and in Amboina, with broad black borders to the fore-wings and a few black spots scattered irregularly towards the margins of the wings. The wings are broad, the fore-wings short, with the hind-margin nearly straight, and the hind-wings are dentated, with an angular projection in the middle of the hind-margin. GENUS PROTOGONIUS. Protogonius, Hiibner, Verz. bek. Schmett., p. ioo (1S16); Westw., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 313 (1850); Butl., P. Z. S., 1873, p. 773, 1875, L, p. 35; Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 171 (1SS8). The long narrow wings of this genus, and the distribution of PROTOGONIUS, I 7 I ils colours, black, tawny, yellow, and white, give it much out- ward resemblance to one of the Heliconiince, or to Lycorea, or Melincsa, among XheDanaince and IthomiincB ; but the wing-cells, closed by very slender rudimentary disco-cellular nervules, and the dentated wings, show it to be one of the true Nymphalince. The antennae are rather short, and are produced into a long club, not pointed at the end. The fore-wings have an arched costa, and the hind-margin is only slightly oblique to the middle, where it throws out a strong tooth. Below this the hind-margin curves strongly to the hinder angle, and like that of the hind-wings, is strongly dentated. In the middle of the hind-margin is a moderately long spatulate tail. There are a considerable number of forms of this genus, which were originally considered to belong to one variable species ; but latterly they have been treated by Butler and others as distinct. They chiefly differ in varieties of pattern and arrangement of the various colours; but there is also some difference in the size and shape of the tooth on the hind- margin of the fore-wings, and in the length of the tooth at the anal angle of the hind-wings, which is scarcely marked in some forms, and becomes a strong sharp projection in others. They are all natives of Tropical America. " Found flying near the borders of the forest, and settling on extended branches with its wings closed perpendicularly." {Bates.) There is little doubt that the various species of Protogonius mimic those of Lycorea in their various localities. Thus P. ochraceus, Butler, from Trinidad, mimics L. fiavesce?is Kirby, from the same locality. PROTOGONIUS FABIUS. {Plate XXV., Fig. 2.) Papilio fabius, Cramer, Pap. Exot, i., pi. 90, figs. C. D. (1776). 172 Lloyd's natural history. This curious Butterfly measures nearly four inches in expanse. The fore-wings have a rounded projection just below the apex, below which the hind-margin is concave and oblique, and at half the distance below the first prominence and the hinder angle, is a much stronger obtuse projection, below which the hind-margin is much more oblique to the hinder angle. The hind-wings are short, and much more strongly dentated than the fore-wings, and have a rather long obtuse tail in the middle of the hind-margin, and a slight pointed projection at the anal angle. The inner-margin forms a gutter to receive the abdomen, and is concave beyond to the anal angle. The fore-wings are black, the costa reddish- tawny nearly to the middle, and the lower part of the cell filled up with reddish-tawny nearly to the extremity ; this forms the upper part of a large patch, which is continued obliquely towards the anal angle, near which its lower end is produced to a point. The outer side of this patch is slightly marked with yellow. Below the extremity of the reddish-tawny stripe on the costa, a broad band, divided into long spots by the nervures, irregular in outline on both sides, and with the last spot but one the longest, runs slightly obliquely nearly to the base of the tooth on the middle of the hind-margin. Above the lower end of this band is a row of four sub-marginal yellow spots running from the costa. The hind-wings are black, with a reddish-tawny band running from the base, and occupying most of the upper portion, but not extending much below the cell ; the inner-margin is also tawny, shading into yellowish towards the body. There is also a sub-marginal row of four white spots, mostly linear, running from the anal angle to the root of the tail. On the under surface the prevailing colour is yellowish-grey, varied with large irregular blotches of purplish- brown towards the base and hinder angles of the wings, and with spaces thickly speckled with lighter brown beyond. ANJEA. 173 This species much resembles a Lycorea in the general ar- rangement of its colours, and very probably occurs in company with Lycorea ceres, figured by Cramer on the same plate, both insects being from Surinam. This species differs from all the described members of the genus, except P. hippo na (Fabricius ; which appears to be the insect figured by Stoll, Suppl. Cram., pi. 2, figs. 1, ad (1787); with its earlier stages), in the much less extension of the reddish colour on the hind-wings ; in most of the other species it covers the whole surface nearly to the sub-marginal spots. But P. hippona differs in having only one or two sub-apical yellow spots on the fore- wings, and the yellow band much narrower ; the wings are also much less dentated, and the tooth on the hind- margin of the fore-wings is shorter and more obtuse. Stoll's insect was probably from Surinam ; there is a specimen of what appears to be the same species in the British Museum from Para. GENERA ALLIED TO PROTOGONIUS. These form the A?i(Ba group of Schatz and Rober, and are all confined to Tropical America. They are Butterflies of cju- siderable size, generally measuring about three inches across the wings, and are adorned with bright colours. The genus Ancea, Hiibner, itself is very numerous in species, which have a strong family likeness, though differing very much in the out- line of the wings. The latter are broad, and the hind-margin of the fore-wings is sometimes nearly straight, or even slightly convex. The tip is frequently pointed, or even strongly hooked, in which case the hind-margin is often first concave, and then convex above the hinder angle, which is also some- times hocked downwards, and followed by a concavity on the inner-margin. The hind-wings are ample, and the hind-margin is sometimes rounded and slightly dentated, with the anal 174 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. angle more or less prominent ; but more frequently the wings are more or less angulated, with a tail at the outer angle. Some of the species are pale coloured above, such as A. electra (Westwood), from Mexico, a straw-coloured Butterfly with black borders, and the hind-wings more or less tinged with tawny ; the fore-wings are hooked, and the hind-wings have a spatulate tail, the anal angle also being produced into a short tail. But most of the species are black, generally blue, green, or purple at the base, and often crossed with blue bands beyond ; in A. cyanea (Godman and Salvin), from Ecuador, the male, except on the black borders, is of the richest purple, with a broad blue sub-marginal band from the inner-margin of the hind-wings to the middle of the fore-wings, and two blue spots towards the outer half of the costa. The hind-margin of the fore-wings is oblique, and the tail of the hind-wings rather short and pointed. Another very handsome species is A. panariste (Hewitson), from Bolivia, in which the black wings are richly glossed with deep blue, and there is a broad yellow space on the costa of the hind-wings. In shape it resembles A. electra, but the fore- wings are longer and more sickle-shaped. Other species are red, often more or less glossed with purple, sometimes on the fore-wings only, and sometimes on all the wings. The under sides are generally grey, ochreous, or brown, mottled with darker, and occasionally crossed by a dusky line. The Butterflies are forest insects of strong flight, and may be found settled on the trunks of trees, sucking the sap. They appear to represent the genus Charaxes in the New World, exhibiting the same variations in outline, and some of the species being very similarly coloured ; but the correspondence is with African and not with Indian species, and is chiefly to be seen in some of the blue forms, such as Charaxes ethalicn, Boisd., &c PLATE 2ZV. /. Marpeaias peleus. Z. rroLogomus fahuvs AOANISTHUS. 175 So far, however, Anaa has never been considered very closely allied to Charaxes, and whether future investigations will establish a closer affinity between them than outer re semblance, remains to be seen. Hypna, Hiibner, is a genus closely allied to Ancea, and, like it, is widely distributed through Tropical America, though it does not contain many species. The latter are closely allied, and were formerly all regarded as varieties of one and the same species. They expand three inches or more across the wings, which are of a glossy brown above, with a slight greenish shade ; sometimes the hind-wings are reddish above. The fore-wings are falcate, though not very strongly so, and the hind-margin is slightly concave beneath. The hind-wings are long, angulated, and strongly dentated, with a moderately long spatulate tail at the outer angle. The lower part of the inner-margin is concave. There is a broad pale-yellow band running from before the middle of the costa of the fore- wings to the hinder angle, as in Gyncccia, which Hypna much resembles in general coloration above, though not in shape. On the under side the wings are mottled with purplish-brown and dull green, and marked with metallic silvery spots. Bates describes these Butterflies as frequenting the borders of the forest, and settling on projecting branches of trees. THE GENUS AGANISTIIUS AND ITS ALLIES. The species belonging to this group are not numerous, and are all Tropical American. They are large and robust in form and were formerly placed near Charaxes ; but the discovery of the transformations of Aganisthus shows that they have strong affinities with the typical Nymphalince. They are probably an intermediate group, connecting the Nymphalincz with the Aj>aturina T 76 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. Aganisthus odius (Fabricius) is a very large brown Butterfly, measuring four or five inches across the wings. It is common throughout the whole of the warmer parts of America. The fore-wings have a strong projection on the hind-margin below the tip, below which the hind-margin is suddenly and deeply concave, and then more gradually, but strongly, convex above the hinder angle. The hind-wings are rounded, but gradually produced below into an obtuse point at the anal angle. The wings are black above, and fulvous at the base ; on the fore- wings the fulvous portion of the wing sends out a broad obtuse projection a little above the middle of the wing, nearly to the hind-margin. Before the tip is a white spot. On the under surface the wings are transversely, but not sharply banded with lighter and darker brown, and slightly shaded with green. The wing-cells are open. The larva is set with branching spines, and has two clavate horns on the head ; the pupa is long, and laterally compressed, with horns on the buck " It is an insect ot extremely rapid flight. I have seen it only in open sunny places in the neighbourhood of towns." {Bates.) Coea cadmus (Cramer) differs from Aganisthus by the tailed hind-wings, and the closed wing cells. It is smaller and less robust than A. odius, with narrower wings, but is very similarly coloured. The fore-wings are less produced, and are of a deeper red at the base, but this colour ends more obtusely than in A. odius ^t two-thirds of their length ; towards the lip are several white spots. The hind-wings are rounded and dentated, and there is a moderately long, slender, acute tail on the middle of the hind-margin. The under side is brown, with zig-zag black lines. This species very greatly resembles Pycina zamba (Double- day and Hewitson), which is found in Venezuela, but, in the latter species, the hind-wings are more reddish above, and CHARAXES. 177 are without a tail. The under side is marbled and mottled as in Pyrameis, and Schatz and Rober consider it to be allied to that genus. Megistanis (Westwood) is another genus closely allied to Coea, though with much superficial resemblance to Charaxes, from which it differs by its closed wing-cells, and the short fork formed by the fourth and fifth sub-costal nervures on the fore- wings. The species measure about three inches across the wings, which are black with white spots towards the tip, and have generally a broad blue or orange band running from the middle of the fore-wings to the anal angle of the hind-wings ; nearer the costa of the fore-wings are one or two large spots corres- ponding to the band. The under surface is light blue or buff with black lines and spots. The Butterflies measure about four inches across the wings ; the fore-wings are slightly emarginate, and the hind-wings strongly dentated, with a short pointed tail at the end of the upper median nervule. They have a wild and rapid flight, and are fond of settling on damp mud. GENUS CHARAXES. Charaxes, Ochsenheimer, Schmett. Eur., iv., p. 18 (1S16) ; Butler, P. Z. S., 1S65, p. 623 ; Schatz, Exot. Schmett, ii., p. 175(1888). Nymphalis, Latr., Hist. Nat. Crust. Ins., xiv., p. 82 (1805) ; id. Enc. Me'th., ix., pp. 10, 329 (1819-23) ; Westw., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 306 (1850). Type, Charaxes jasius (Linn.) This genus is somewhat allied to Apatura, but the body and antennae are much thicker, and the latter gradually thickened ; the fore-wings have the costa strongly arched, and the hind- margin deeply concave, and the hind-wings are generally pro- vided with two tails, varying in length and shape. i 7 8 LLOYD S NATURAL HISTORY. The larvae have generally four horns on the head, and a bifid tail. This genus contains a considerable number of Indian, African, and Australian species ; they are insects of consider- able but not usually of very large size, about three or four inches being the usual expanse. One species only is European; it is found on the shores of the Mediterranean, and is prob- ably derived from an Abyssinian species which greatly resembles it. It may have straggled down the Nile in former times, and then have become modified in the Mediterranean Sub-region ; but neither the Abyssinian nor the European species is found in Lower Egypt at the present day. With few exceptions, the Indian and Australian species are tawny, pale green, or pale yellow, with black borders ; or are black, more or less broadly banded with the paler colours. The species of this genus have a very lofty and powerful flight, and are very difficult to capture. They may sometimes be attracted, like other high flying Butterflies, by strongly- smelling substances, and sometimes they suck the sap exuding from trees. They have also a habit of frequenting the same twig, and returning to it after a longer or shorter flight. Some species have a very extensive range in Africa, being met with from Abyssinia to the West Coast, and to Natal, while others are much more restricted in their range. Some, such as C. eupale (Drury), which is one of the smaller species, are remark- able for the unusual character of their colouring, which is light green in the species just mentioned ; but others, such as the European C. jasius and its allies, are distinguished by the beautiful patterns of the under surface. They may be divided into a considerable number of small groups, which some authors consider to be of generic value. In some species, as in C. jasius, the sexes are nearly alike, but in others they are very dissimilar both in form and colouring. PLATE XXVI. Charades . fasius CHARAXES. 179 Mr. Trimen, in his " Rhopalocera Africa? Australis" (p. 166), makes the following remarks on the habits of the South African species of Charaxes : " All, as far as is known at present, are inhabitants of woods, where they delight to settle on the stems or lofty twigs of timber-trees, frequently darting from their resting-places, and sporting about with a rapidity which might be inferred from their massive thorax, and strong, cleanly cut wings. Again and again, even when roughly scared from their seat, will they return to the same position. They do not appear to relish the honey of flowers, but the moisture that exudes from the bark of trees forms their favourite food. Oc- casionally, too, they are attracted to earth by some damp substance, and the more strongly-scented such substance be, the more likely are they to settle on it. The males are always the higher, more rapid, and frequent flyers, and females are consequently the oftener captured, though anything but slow in their movements." However, in his recently-publishec " South African Butterflies," he mentions that the species o: Charaxes may sometimes be attracted by honey, or by th< sweet compound called " sugar," which English entomologist: use to attract Moths ; and that many of the smaller species an in the habit of frequenting flowers. THE PASHA WITH TWO TAILS. CHARAXES JASIUS. {Plate XXVI.) Papilio j'asius, Linn., Syst. Nat. (xii.), i. (2), errata (1767); Drury, 111. Exot. Ins., i., pi. 1, fig. 1 (1773); Esper, Schmett., i. (2), p. 29, pi. 99, figs. 1, 2, p. 61, pi. 104, figs. 2-8 (1790 ? ). Papilio jason, Linn., Syst. Nat. (xii.), i. (2), p. 749, no. 26 (1767); nee Syst. Nat. (x.) i., p. 485, no. 171 (1758); Cramer, Pap. Exot, ii., pi. 186, figs. A. B. (1777); iv., pi. 329, figs. A. B (1780). x 8o Lloyd's natural history, Charaxes jasius, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 25, pi. ii, fig. 4 (1878); Lang, Butterflies Eur., p. 154, pi. 34, fig. 1, pi. 36, fig. 1 (1882). This Butterfly is the only European representative of the genus to which it belongs. It is found in most of the countries bordering on the Mediterranean, France, Italy, Greece, Algeria, &c. In Southern France it is perhaps most abundant in the Isles of Hyeres, though it occurs as far north as Lyons. It measures from two and a half to three and a half inches across the wings, which are of a silky brown with a slight reddish tinge. All the wings have a marginal yellow border, cut by the nervures, and shading into orange towards the tip of the fore-wings, and into yellowish-green at the anal angle of the hind-wings. On the fore-wings the costa is yellowish-red, and there is a marginal row of orange spots running from the costa, sometimes represented on the hind-wings by a spot on the costa. Within the band there is generally a row of four small blue spots towards the anal angle of the hind-wings. The yellow band of the hind-wings is narrowly bordered with black, and the tails are also black. On the under side, the wings, from the base to beyond the middle, are of a deep purplish-red colour, with many stripes and spots of olive-brown bordered with white ; this is folluwed by a bluish-white band, broader on the hind-wings than on the fore-wings, where it is sometimes only slightly marked; outside this, on the fore-wings, is a row of orange spots bordered outside with black, and separated by a grey space from the orange hind-margin ; on the hind-wings the white band is followed by a series of dark red spots, beyond which the wing is orange nearly to the hind-margin, which is more narrowly edged with black than on the upper side. The inner side of this orange space is more or less clouded with black; CHARAXES. iSl and towards the anal angle is a row of blue spots, paler than above, and partially bordered with black. " The caterpillar, which in its early stage is green, becomes afterwards of a yellowish hue, and its skin is, as it were, shagreened and transversely plaited. Its head is singularly armed with four vertical yellow horns, tipped with red, of which the two intermediate are the longest. A yellow line passes along each side of the body in the region of the stigmata, and the back is marked with four indistinct orange spots. The true feet are black, the membranous ones green. It feeds on the leaves of the strawberry-tree {Arbutus utiedo), and never eats except during the night. Its habits are very lethargic. During daytime it remains fixed and motionless on its favourite plant, which it resembles in colour, and thus escapes observation. The chrysalis is smooth, thick, carinated, and of a coriaceous texture, the colour pale green. Two broods or flights of the perfect insect are produced each year, the first in June, the second in September. The caterpillars of the autumnal brood survive the winter and are not trans- formed into chrysalids till the ensuing May. The perfect insects are then produced in about fifteen days. These speedily deposit their eggs, which are hatched in June, and after three months occupied in the usual transformations, the second flight appears in September, and continues the race in the manner above-mentioned. In many parts of France the Butterfly is named the ' Pasha with Two Tails' " * Further particulars respecting the habits of this interesting Butterfly, from the observations of Mr. de Vismes Kane, will be found in my " European Butterflies and Moths" (pp. 23, 24), to which I must refer the reader. The French entomologists often use rotten cheese as a bait to attract this and other high flying Butterflies within reach. * Wilson's " Illustrations of Zoology," fol. 27, l8 , LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. C jasius is closely allied to C. epijasius (Reiche), an Abyssinian species, which is chiefly distinguished from it by possessing a large patch of pale blue on the upper side of the hind-wings. . . In Drury's "Illustrations of Exotic Entomology, vol. i., p 2 , and vol. iii-, p. 4; (Westwood's edition), will be found an >unt of the habits of C. castor (Cramer), a common West African species, which much resembles C. jasius beneath, but which is tawny on the upper side, with broad brown borders, and has much shorter tails on the hind-wings. It was first brough from Sierra Leone by Smeathman, a naturalist who visited tl place in the last century, and whose observations on the insects which he collected are of permanent interest and value. It flies in the heat of the day with amazing rapidity, and seldom de- scends within eight feet of the ground. It glances from the promi- nent branches of one tree to those of another as swiftly as a Swallow, and turns its head about instantly to the glade or path and will not suffer any person to approach within a striking distance of it, but darts away on the least motion of the body. If the collector exert his patience, it will at 1 become more familiar and careless, and is then to be caught upon some particular branch, to which it will appear more attached than to another." These observations have been erroneously supposed to apply to Papilio antimachus (Drury) (cf. vol. iii., p- 2). CHARAXES XIPHARES. Papilio xiphares, Cramer, Pap. Exot, iv, pi. 37 7, ngs. A. B. Papilio ] thurius, Godart, Encycl. Meth., ix., p. 354, no. 15 Nymphll xiphares, Godart, Encycl. Med,., ix., p. 357, no. ,5 (1823) i Trimen, Rhop. Air. Austr, p. 167 (1866). CHARAXES. Charaxes xip/mres, Trimen, S. Afr. Butterflies, i, p. 34* (1887). i _ v Papilio thyestes, Stoll Suppl. Cram, pi. 32, figs. 2, 2 li. (1790). This is a handsome South African Butterfly, measuring from three and a half to four and a half inches across the winais. The male is blue-black above, with rows of blue and white spots on the fore-wings, and there is a broad blue band across the hind-wings, which have two rows of sub-marginal lunules, and two short tails. In the female the spots arc larger and whiter, and the blue band is replaced by a yellow one. Ihe under 'surface is light brown or grey, with numerous blue and white lines, with a white band, less marked in the male, and a sub-marginal row of black lunules bordered with yellow. Mr. Trimen (Rhop. Afr. Austr, p. 1 70) gives the following account of the habits of this conspicuous species : " Their favourite haunts are the open spots on, or near, the outskirts of a wood, where they settle on the bark or projecting twigs of the trees, frequently glancing off, suddenly disappearing among or over the opposite trees, and as suddenly returning to the spot so abruptly l&t. I have several times seen three or four specimens together, settled high up on a lofty tree-stem, busily imbibing the moist exudations from its bark. When so engaged, they walk over a little space with much importance of action, contemptuously snipping their glossy wings at im- pertinent Diptera and other insects, who presume to share their repast. I have sometimes suddenly roused the female from quite a low bush, when she darted up and away with such velocity that a single vain stroke of the net was the most I ever had an opportunity of making. One day, however, this single instinctive sweep of the net was successful." f 84 Lloyd's natural history. CIIARAXES TIRIDATES. {Plate XXVI 1., Figs. I, 2.) Papilio tiridates, Cramer, Pap. Exot, ii., pi. 161, figs. A. B. (1777); Drury, 111. Exot. Ent., iii., pi. 23, figs. 1, 2 (17S2). Nymphalis tiridates, Godart., Enc. Meth., ix., p. 354, no. 14 (1823); Trimen, Rhop. Afr. Austr., p. 172 (1866). Charaxes tiridates, Staud. Exot. Schmett., i., p. 169, pi. 59 (1885). ? Papilio tnarica, Fabr., Ent. Syst, iii. (1), P- 113. n0 - 34^ (1793); Donov., Nat. Rep., ii., pi. 37 (1824). This species was orginally described by Cramer as from Java and Amboina ; but although he corrected the error in his " Errata," giving the locality as Guinea, subsequent authors per- petuated it, even as late as Westvvood in his edition of Drury's "Illustrations of Exotic Entomology," published in 1837, and Duncan in the volume on Exotic Butterflies in the " Natural- ist's Library" 1840. Westwood, indeed, adds the equally erro- neous locality of Rio Janeiro, on the authority of a correspon- dent of Drury's. Since then, however, the insect has become well known as a native of West Africa, and was also described as inhabiting South Africa by Mr. Trimen on Boisduval's authority ; but as he has excluded it from his later works, it is to be presumed that its reputed occurrence in South Africa is more than doubtful. The male measures about four inches across the wings, which are of a very deep blue-black, with brown nervures ; and there is a double row of blue spots towards the margins of all the wings. The incisions, and a sub-marginal row of lunules on the hind-wings, are yellowish. On the under sur- face, the wings are of a brownish grey, somewhat glossy, and arc ornamented with black streaks and spots edged with blue towards the base, more or less bordered with yellow, and PLATE XXVII . 1 . 2 . Charaaces tiruLcctes 3. ,. etheocLe>s CHAR AXES. 185 followed by rows of more or less continuous yellowish spots partly bordered with blue. Towards the hinder angle of the fore-wings are two blue lunules, bordered with black and yel- low, and on the hind-wings is a sub-marginal row of violet ocellated spots, preceded and followed by a row of yellow lunules. The tails are rather short and slender, the first longest. The body is dark brown above, with four white spots on the head ; beneath it is yellowish. The antennas arc black, with the palpi yellow beneath. The female, described by Fabricius under the name of Papilio marica, and correctly stated by him to come from Africa, is brown above, with a white band and white spots on the fore-wings, and some blue and white spots towards the margins of the hind-wings. CHARAXES ETHEOCLES. {Plate XXVII. , Fig. 3.) Papilio etheocks, Cram., Pap. Exot., ii., pi. 119, figs. D. E. (i777)- Nymphalis etheocks, Godart, Enc. Meth., ix., p. 355, no. 17 (1823). The female of this Butterfly was first brought from Sierra Leone. It expands about three and a half inches, and is of a shining bluish colour above, while across the middle of the wings runs a broad white band, with greenish reflections. On the fore-wings this band is divided into spots, and commences on the costa with a row of four small ones in a line with the outer limit of the band. At and above the end of the cell, beyond the level of the inner edge of the band, is another row of three small spots, and there is a detached one in the upper part of the cell at about two-thirds of its length. The portion of the hind-wings beyond the hand is blackish, bordered outside ii 2 1 86 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. with white, and then by nearly connected green sub marginal lunules, the hinder angle of the fore-wings being also marked with a green spot. Towards the anal angle of the hind-wings are two black spots. The under side is of a pale coffee-brown, with sonle short blue lines and streaks towards the base, bordered with black. On the fore-wings are three round black spots in blue rings near the base, and the two lowest white spots of the band are produced nearly to the hind-margin, and are each marked at three-quarters of their length with a large black spot. On the hind-wings the lower part of the white band is bordered out- side with green, and then, much more extensively, with blackish, and the white lunules are bordered outside with blue, most broadly towards the anal angle. The space between these lunules and the anal angle, including the innermost tail, which is the shortest, and the area reaching nearly to the root of the other tail, is green, with four prominent black spots, two of which are close together near the anal angle. The male, as in the numerous closely-allied species of this group, is probably smaller, of a deep velvety black, with some detached blue spots on the fore-wings, and some slight white or greenish markings towards the hind-margins of the hind- wings. There is no specimen exactly resembling Cramer's figure, from which the one in our plate is copied, in the col- lection of the British Museum ; and Drury (" Illustrations of Exotic Entomology," iii., pi. io)has figured a different, and not very closely allied, West African species of Charaxes, C. etesipe (Godart), under the name of Papilio etheodes. GENERA ALLIED TO CHARAXES. Ethiopian Region. The genus Fal/a, Hiibner, is so closely allied to Charaxes that Mr. Trimen does not consider it worthy of separation EUXANTHE. 1 87 The species expand three or four inches across the wings, which are broad, the fore-wings not much longer than the hind- wings, and the latter more square than is usually the case in Charaxes, with a strong tail at the outer angle. They are black, with white or tawny markings, which may extend from the base to the middle of the wing, followed by sub-marginal rows of tawny spots, as in P. varanes (Cramer), or may consist of trans- verse bands across both wings, varying in width. P. varanes is common in most parts of Africa, and is described by Mr. Trimen as less rapid in its flight than the typical species of Charaxes, and as frequently descending to sport about trees and bushes. It is also fond of the sap exuding from trunks of trees. The pupa is remarkable for possessing two pairs of small yellowish black-tipped tubercles on the anal pedicel, and two on the ventral surface, close to the pedicel ; the head is bifid. Another African genus included by many entomologists with Charaxes is Monura, Mabille, which differs much more in shape from typical Charaxes than does Palla. M. zingha (Cramer) is a well-known West African Butterfly, expanding about three inches. The fore-wings have the hind-margin hardly concave, but the hind-wings are at first rounded and dentated, and then curved outwards to form a broad lobe at the anal angle, with a projecting tooth on the outer side. The wings are black, broadly red at the base, with this colour run- ning up nearly to the tip of the fore-wings. The wings are black or buff beneath, with black spots at the base, blue spots in the middle and towards the anal angle of the hind-wings, and the hinder half of the fore-wings is red. The genus Euxanthe, Hiibner, which is confined to Africa and Madagascar, has no very near allies, but is considered by Schatz and Rober to be allied to Charaxes, which it resembles in neuration, but not in shape. These Butterflies measure four 1 88 Lloyd's natural history. inches in expanse, and have very broad, rounded, hardly den- ticulated wings, the fore-wings being hardly longer than the hind- wings. The species are black, with green or yellow transverse markings, and sometimes white spots ; more or less of the centre of the hind-wings is usually green. Indian and Austro-Malayan Regions. To these regions belongs the small genus Prothoe, Hubner, the type of which, P.franckii (Godart), is about three inches in expanse, with broad short wings, and the hind-margin of the fore-wings nearly straight, while the hind-wings are angulated, and produced into a short broad obtuse tail at the outer angle. The Butterfly, which is found in Java, is black, with a broad oblique white band edged with blue on the fore-wings ; towards the tip are some white spots. The under-side is brown, varied with grey, and, on the hind-wings, with greenish : it is marked with black spots and zig-zag lines. There are several closely allied forms in Malacca, &c, with the band blue, sometimes without any white admixture. In P.ausiralis (Guerin), and its allies, which are found in New Guinea and the Moluccas, the hind-wings are concave below the middle, and produced into a short broad lobe, but are hardly sub-caudate. These Papuan species of Prothoe are black Butterflies, rather larger than P. franckii, with very broad white or pale yellow bands on the hind-wings, and often on part of the fore-wings likewise. The largest and most beautiful species is P. cafydonia, Hewitson. It is more than five inches in expanse, and is found in Malacca and Borneo. It is black, with the base and hinder half of the fore-wings primrose-yellow nearly to the margins, where the colour ends in a zig-zag outline ; nearer the tip is an oblique row of spots of the same colour. The hind- wings are bluish, shading into primrose outside, with a broad black border; the outer angle forms a large rounded lobe. The under surface is black and brick-red, varied with primrose, SIDERONE. 189 and in smaller proportions, with white, flesh-colour, blue, &c. It is a rare insect ; the first specimen captured by Dr. Wallace had settled on dung, and it was twelve years before a second was brought to England. Hewitson considered it one of the most beautiful species with which he was acquainted. Neotropical Region. The genus Zaretes, Hiibner, is remarkable for the dead- leaf pattern of the under surface of the wings, which is more pronounced than in any other Tropical American Butterflies. The species are of moderate size, generally about two inches and a half in expanse. The fore-wings are pointed, with the hind margin, and the outer part of the inner-margin concave ; the hind-wings are produced into a short tail at the anal angle. The species vary from pale ochreous to reddish-fulvous, and there are often two transparent spots on the fore-wings. The few closely-allied species are common throughout Tropical America, inhabiting thinned parts of the forest. Ccenophkbia archidona (Hewitson), from Archidoha in New Granada, is a much larger Butterfly, exceeding four inches in expanse. The fore-wings are extremely falcate, but otherwise unusually regular in outline, not being concave or dentated ■ the anal angle of the hind-wings is almost rectangular. The wings are of a rich tawny above, with brown or black borders not sharply defined ; the under side is brown, with tawny mottlings and silvery spots, and the mid-rib of a leaf-pattern running beyond the middle of the hind-wings to the tip of the fore-wings ; outside it are sometimes side-ribs of the leaf. Siderotic^ Hiibner, has much resemblance to Zaretes, es- pecially in size, shape, and the more or less developed tail at the anal angle of the hind-wings. The species are about three inches, or rather less, in expanse. The fore-wings are but slightly pointed at the tip, and the hind-margin is rounded, I go LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. and only concave, i" at all, at the hinder angle. They differ, however, very much horn Siderotic in colour, being black, some- times glossed with purple, with a great part of the fore-wings from the base filled up with brilliant scarlet, of the same shade as in Catagramma or Agrias, from which the shape of the wings and the different character of the under side will at once distinguish them. This scarlet patch may be confined to part of the basal region, or it may extend over a great part of the wing ; in the latter case, it is sometimes partly interrupted, and there is generally a red blotch on the costa of the hind-wings also. The females have the scarlet portion of the wings replaced with orange-tawny. The under side is dark brown, varied with reddish, but without sharply-defined markings. After Siderotic, we may consider Agrias, Doubleday and Hewitson, to which belong the most gorgeously coloured of the Nymphalince. of the New World. They much resemble gigantic Butterflies of the genera Catagramma or Callit/iea, but are much more robust, and expand three or four inches ; and they generally inhabit localities where these much smaller Butterflies are also found. The fore-wings are broad, hardly concave, and the hind-wings rounded, and but slightly den- ticulated, and scarcely, if at all, angulated in the middle, or produced at the anal angle. On the hind-wings of the male there is always a conspicuous tuft of yellow hair near the inner margin. Some of the species are black, often suffused with rich purple, and the greater part of the fore-wings, except at the tip, is of a brilliant scarlet. The under side of the hind- wings is generally more or less yellow, variously marked with undulating black lines, and often with black spots towards the base on a bluish ground ; but in all the species of the genus there is a sub-marginal row of moderate-sized round black spots, sometimes connected, and generally with large white or AGRIAS. 191 bluish-white pupils. Other species are of a rich purple above, either with a nearly marginal pale green band, or with an orange space instead of a green one at the base of the fore- wings. In these the under side of the hind-wings is green, with black spots and lines towards the base (except when the basal half of the wings is red or yellow). One of the hand- somest species is the newly-discovered A. narcissus, Stau- dinger, from Cayenne, which is marked very like a Batesia, being of a rich purplish-blue, with a broad oblique scarlet band on the fore- wings. These magnificent Butterflies are most abundant on the western side of North America, towards the head-waters of the Amazons. They are insects of powerful flight, usually settling on trees. Bates has given a graphic account of the habits of his A. sardanapaius, a brilliant blue Butterfly, with the fore- wings scarlet for two-thirds of the length from the base. <; I met with it," he says, "at different points of the Upper Amazons ; always in sunny openings in the primeval forests, in hot gloomy weather between the dry and the wet season. Its evolutions on the wing are similar to those of the Prepofuc, and it is utterly impossible to capture it, except when settled. The first examples I saw were attracted by a sweet sap exud- ing from the trunk of a felled tree, where a large number of Cetoniade Coleoptera were daily congregated. A dense crowd of other handsome Butterflies were assembled on the same tree — Preponcz, Paphi 3 O782). It is a thinly-scaled brown Butterfly, two and a half inches in expanse, with the outer half of the hind-wings tawny, marked with two eyes, and bordered within with a white band, much expanded in the middle ; on the fore-wings is a much narrower oblique band. It is common in South America. Pierella is the most extensive genus of the exclusively Tropical-American group to which the transparent-winged genera, Cithccrias and Hetcera belong. The species of Pierella measure from two to three inches across the wings, which are broad and rounded, opaque, though sometimes rather thinly scaled, and the hind-wings are nearly as broad as long, more or less quadrate, usually with a slight projection on the hind-margin opposite to the anal angle. The wings are brown, sometimes with a slight *o6 Lloyd's natural history. t>ronzy iridescence, which is frequently noticeable in dark- coloured Satyritice, and are often banded with white, and varied on the hind-wings, at least, with large patches of white, red, blue, or tawny. PIERELLA CERYCE. {Plate XXXV., Fig. i.) Hcctcra ceryce, Hewitson, Bolivian Butterflies, p. 10, no. 20 (1874). Upper side.— Female. — Fore-wings semi-transparent, rufous- brown, crossed by three indistinct short brown bands (two in the cell), and by a longer dark brown band below the middle ; three minute sub-apical white spots. Hind-wings rufous, crossed beyond the middle by a band of brown ; the outer margin broadly brown, traversed by five white spots, bordered with black. Under side. — Pale rufous-brown, undulated with dark brown. Both wings crossed by three linear common bands of brown. Fore-wings with a minute black spot near the base, and three minute sub-apical white spots as above. Hind-wings with five sub-apical white spots. Exp., 3-^ inches. The above is adapted from the original description of Hewit- son, who considered the species to be probably only a variety of P. hyceta (Hew.). The last-named Butterfly, with which this species is com- pared, is found in Eastern Peru, and is smaller, with only the first of a row of round black spots which crosses the hind- wings usually within the rufous part, centred with white. P. ceryce is a native of Bolivia, and is here figured for the first time. II. Lethe Group. This group, as employed by Schatz and Rober, includes a considerable number of genera, mostly East Indian, though one or two have South African representatives, and two genera are PARARGE. 207 Palocarctic and European. The East Indian species nearly always have the hind-wings angulated, with a more or less dis- tinct tail at the outer angle. One genus, Ptychandra, Felder, found in the Philippines, is of a rich blue on the upper side of the male, and another genus, Ccelites, Westwood, from the Indo-Malayan Region, has the inner-margin of the hind-wings bordered with blue. The rest are mostly brown, with white or tawny markings ; among them is one of the largest of the Satyrince, viz., Neorina loivii (Doubl. and Hew.), from Borneo and Sumatra. This insect measures nearly four inches across the wings, which are dark brown, the fore-wings produced, and the hind-wings with a short thick tail, and a large cream- coloured blotch at the apex of the hind-wings, extending to the adjacent portion of the fore-wings. Our British species of Pararge, though small, and hardly typical of the bulk of the genera placed in this section, must here serve to illustrate it. GENUS TARARGE. Pararge, Hiibner, Verz. bek. Schmett, p. 59 (1816); Schatz and Rober, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 202 (1S89). Lasiommata, Westwood, Brit. Butt., p. 65 (1840); id. Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 385 (1S51). Type, P. egeria (L.). Eyes hairy, the antennas gradually formed ; palpi with the terminal joint short. Wings with the costal nervure much thickened at the base, the median nervure slightly so, and the hind-margins distinctly denticulated. Colour brown, mostly with tawny or yellowish-white markings ; an eye-spot present near the tip of the fore-wings, and a row of sub-apical eyes on the hind-wings. This genus is confined to the Palaearctic Region, and we have only one species in Britain. 2o8 Lloyd's natural history. THE SPECKLED WOOD BUTTERFLY, OR WOOD ARGUS. PARARGE EGERIDES. {Plate XXXI., Fig. 3.) a. Northern Form. (P. egerides.) Papilio czgeria (nee L.), Esper, Schmett., i., p. 105, pi. 7, fig. 1 (1777). Hipparchia cegeria (nee L.), Stephens, 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i.,p. 54 (1827). Pararge cegeria, v. egerides, Staud., Cat. Lepid. Eur., p. 30, no. 372a (1S71). Satyrus cegeria, var. egerides, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 39, pi. 12, fig. 10 (1S78). Pararge egeria, var. egerides, Lang, Butterflies of Europe, p. 294, pi. 73, fig. 3 (1884). Lasiommata cegeria, Buckler, Larvse of Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., pp. 27, 163, pi. 4. fig. 1 (18S6). Pararge a-geria, Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 227, pi. 31 OS93)- p. Mediterranean Form. (P. egeria.) Papilio cegeria, Linn., Syst. Nat. (xii.), i. (2), p. 473. no. S3 (1758). Papilio meone, Cramer, Bap. Exot., iv., pi. 314, figs. E. F. (1780). Satyrus a-geria, Kirby, /. s. c, p. 39 (1S7S). Pararge egeria, Lang, /. s. c, p. 293, pi. 73, fig. 2 (1884). This is a very common Butterfly in many parts of Britain, frequenting woods, lanes, and hedgerows, from spring to autumn. It expands an inch and three quarters or two inches across the wings, which are brown. The fore-wings have a black eye, with a white pupil near the tip, and their outer half is spotted with pale yellow. The hind-wings are marked with three sub-marginal eyes in pale yellow rings, and there are 'urti C AAA1 1 2. Melanargia galxxthe-a . 3. Pararge egerides. 4.5.EpinepIule iithomis,male &fhtiale. SATYRUS. 209 three additional pale spots arranged in a triangle near the tip. On the under side the fore-wings are marked nearly as above, but the spots are larger. The hind-wings are varied with grey and purplish, or reddish, and are marked with a rather indis- tinct row of small reddish-brown eyes, with white pupils. The fringes are pale yellow, interrupted on the nervures. The larva is green, pubescent, with yellow or whitish lines on the sides. It feeds on various grasses, especially Triticum repens, and there is a succession of broods throughout the year. This Butterfly is generally called P. egeria (Linn.) in works on British entomology, but this name properly belongs to the South European form, in which the pale yellow or whitish markings of the northern insect are replaced by rich tawny or fulvous. Lang states that, in some places, P. egerides occurs as the spring, and P. egeria as the summer, brood. GENUS SATYRUS.* Satynis, Latr., Consid. Gen., p. 355 (1810); id. Encycl. Me'th., ix., pp. 11, 4S0 (1819-23). Dim, Hiibner, Verz. bek. Schmett., p. 60 (18 16). Amecera, Butler, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist, (3), xix., p. 162 (1867). Eyes hairy ; antenna; with a distinct pyriform club ; palpi with the terminal joint longer than in Pararge ; wings with the costal nervure much thickened, the median nervure slightly so ; hind-margin slightly denticulated. Colour brown ; fore- wings more or less filled up with tawny, and having an eye with one or two white pupils at the tip ; hind-wings with two or three sub-apical eyes above, and a regular series below. This is another Palaearctic genus ; and species, much re- sembling the European Wall Browns, S. megcera and S. * Pararge, pt. Schatz and Rober, antea, p. 203. 2 to LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. mcera, are met with as far as the Himalayas. With the ex- ception of .S. megera, the species generally frequent rocky places. As S. megcera is called " Le satyre" by the old French writers, and was also called Satyrus by Linnaeus in some of his earlier works, there can be no question that it should be regarded as the type of the genus Satyrus ; though this generic name was originally used to include the whole Sub-family by Latreille and others. THE WALL BROWN. SATYRUS MEG/ERA. (Pla/e XXXII., Figs. 4, 5.) Papilio megcera, Linn., Syst. Nat. (xii.), i., pt. 2, p. ryi, no. 142 (1767); Esper, Schmett., i., pt. 1, p. 96, pi. 6, fig. 3 (i777); '•> Pt- 2, p. 100, pi. 68, fig. 4 (17S1). Hipparchia megcera, Stephens, 111., Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 55 (1S27). Satyrus u/egcra, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 39, pi. 13, figs. 2, a-c (1S78). Pararge megaira, Lang, Butterflies of Europe, p. 293, pi. 72, fig. 5 (1884); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 234, pi. 32 (1893)- Lasiommata megcera, Buckler, Larva? of British Butterflies and Moths, p. 165, pi. 4, fig. 2 (1SS6). Next to the Meadow Brown, this is probably the commonest species of the Sub-family. It frequents lanes, hedgerows, open places in woods, roads, &c, throughout the summer, and some- times settles on walls, whence its name. It measures about an inch and a half across the wings. The fore-wings are fulvous, bordered and more or less interlined with brown, and in the male there is a broad oblique brown bar towards the inner- margin ; at the tip is a black eye, with one white pupil. The hind-wings are brown, with two sub-marginal fulvous streaks, PLATE XXXII t 2. Hipparchixv sonde, male & female ' } n „ underside. 4-5. Satyrus maacercb. SATYRUS. of which the outer one is the broadest, and contains three black eyes with white pupils, besides a rudimentary one to- wards the anal angle. On the under side the apical eye of the fore-wings is surrounded by a whitish yellow ring, and the hind- s The Wall Brown [Satyrus megcera). Upper side of Female. wings are brownish-grey, with six small black eyes with white pupils, each enclosed by one brown and one yellowish ring. The eye nearest the anal angle is two-pupilled. Our plate represents the male. The female is figured in the cuts. The larva is pubescent, light green, with pale dorsal and lateral lines ; it feeds on grass. Under side of Female. The commonest of the Continental species allied to S. megcera is S. maera, but this is a larger and darker insect, with a fulvous blotch on the fore-wings, on which the eye, which 2 T 2 Lloyd's natural history. has generally two white pupils, is placed. On the hind-wings there are generally two eyes on the upper side instead of three. Allied species are met with throughout Northern and Central Asia, and southwards as far as the Himalayas. III. Mycalesis Group. In this group, Schatz and Rober include Mycalesis, Hiibner, Bicyclns, Kirby, and Ragadia, Westwcod. Bicydus is West African, and includes a few species, resembling large species of Mycalesis, with short, broad, much rounded wings. Ragadia is an East Indian genus, containing species under two inches in expanse, which are brown, striped with grey, or with darker brown, and with large sub-marginal eyes beneath, with silvery pupils. GENUS MYCALESIS. Mycalesis, Hiibner, Verz. bek. Schmett, p. 54 (1816); West- wood, Gen. Diura. Lepid., p. 392 (1851); Schatz, Exot. Schmett, ii., p. 203 (1889). The genus Mycalesis is confined to the tropics of the Old World, and is very numerous in species. It includes brown Butterflies, averaging about two inches across the wings ; and many of the species are more or less tawny or white, especially at the base, but sometimes towards the margins ; or the whole of the wings may be white or tawny, except the borders. They may easily be known from any other Butterflies by almost in- variably possessing a large black eye in a white or yellow ring, and with a single white pupil, towards the hinder angle of the fore-wings, and usually two or three smaller ones towards the anal angle of the hind-wings. The nervures of the fore-wings are thickened at the base; and there is generally a sub-marginal row of eyes on all the wings beneath. The males are generally provided with glandular pouches, covered with tufts of hair, MYCALESIS. 213 on one or both pairs of wings. They have recently been divided into many genera, which, however, are not yet univers- ally recognised by entomologists, and it is therefore unnecessary to notice them further in a work of this description. MYCALESIS SIMONSII. {Plate XXXV., Fig. 5.) Mycaksis simonsti, Butler, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), xix., p. 458(1877). Wings above sandy-yellow, with a straight, transverse, pale- bordered light brown post-median line across both wings ; costal and apical areas of fore-wings reddish-brown, particularly in the female, the base and outer border more or less tinted with the same colour ; the margins and a sub-marginal line darker brown ; two white-pupilled black ocelli, one small towards the apex, the other large between the first and second median branches ; hind-wings with six more or less strongly indicated discal black dots ; outer margin reddish-brown. Fe- male with a slender sub-marginal reddish-brown line. Under surface pale rusty-reddish, mottled with ferruginous; the basal area bounded externally by a pale-bordered post-median ferru- ginous line, deeper in colour than the basal area ; a marginal line, and indications of a sub-marginal line, ferruginous ; fore-wings with the ocelli less distinct than above, with an additional smaller indistinct ocellus above and below the sub-apical one; hind-wings with an irregular ferruginous line crossing the cell ; discal dots more distinct than above, more or less pupillated with white. {Butler.) Expanse of wings, 1 inch, 10 to 11 lines. Allied to M. eliasis, Hewitson. The types of this species are in the British Museum, and were collected by Mr. F A. A Simons at Lake Nyasa. 214 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. IV. Melanitis Group. A group of small extent, consisting of a few East Indian, African, and American species, measuring three inches and upwards across the wings, which are brown, usually more or less marked with fulvous on the fore-wings at least, and with the hind-margin of the hind-wings nearly rectangular, with a strong projection at the outer angle. Melanitis leda (Linn.), and the numerous closely-allied Indian and African forms, usually have two more or less developed ocellated spots near the tip of the fore-wings. Schatz and Rober consider the Tropical American genera of this group somewhat aberrant. The type of one of these, Tisiphone hercyna, Htibner, is a black Butterfly, with large white spots on the apical region of the fore-wings, and with the hind-wings but little angulated. Another remarkable genus we have figured, viz., GENUS OEROIS. Cccrois, Htibner, Verz. bek. Schmett., p. 56 (1816); Schatz and Rober, Exot. Schmett, ii., p. 206 (1SS9). Cterous, Westwood, Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 366 (185 1). C/EROIS CHORIN/EUS. (Plate XXXVI.) Papi/io chorines, Fa.br., Syst. ILnL, p. 484, no. 182 (1775); Donov., Nat. Rep., iii., pi. 104 (1825). Papilio ancsilaus, Sulz., Gesch. Ins., pi. 14, fig. 4 (1776); Cramer, Pap. Exot., iv., pi. 294, A.-D. (17S0); Stoll. Suppl. Cramer, pi. vi., figs 1, ia ( 1 7S7, transf.). Satyrus chorincens, Godart, Enc. Meth., ix., p. 480, no. io (1823). Ccerois chorinczus, Staud., Exot. Schmett., i., p. 221, pi. 77 (1S87). Carols is a small South American genus, and is recognisable HIPPARCHIA GROUP. 2 1 5 at once by its peculiar shape, which is well shown in our figure of a Surinam specimen of C. chorinceus. We have also figured the earlier stages. The Butterfly measures from three to four inches across the wings ; the fore-wings are black, and so much produced at the tip so as to be almost hooked ; the borders are yellow, and there is a broad yellow band running obliquely from beyond the middle of the costa to the lower part of the hind-margin, and towards the tip is a white spot ; the base is brown. The hind-wings are brown, bordered with yellow ; they are sub-quadrate, and have a short broad tail projecting outwards from the lower angle of the hind-margin. The male is further remarkable for the extreme atrophy of the front legs, which are reduced to a mere knob, and for two con- spicuous tufts of hair on the under surface of the fore-wings, on the inner-margin, and at the hinder angle. The larva feeds on sugar-cane, and the perfect insect emerges from the chrysalis in about eleven days. V. Hipparchia Group. (Satyr us group of Schatz and Rober.) This extensive group includes all the remaining Satyrince, except those belonging to the Pronophila group, which is ex- clusively Tropical American, and chiefly inhabits the Andes. The Hipparchia group includes, inter alia, all the European genera, except Pararge and Satyrus. Schatz and Rober divide the genera into four sections, as follows : — 1. Euptychia sec' ion. — Most of the sub-marginal eyes de- veloped. Several longitudinal lines on all the wings. Costal and median nervures of the fore-wings inflated at the base. (N.B. — Oresrinoma is aberrant.) 2. Ypthima section. — Generally with one or two ocellated spots at the apex of the fore-wings, which are frequently united into one large eye with two pupils. Lines on the upper side T 216 Lloyd's natural history wanting. Costal nervure always, and median and sub-median nervures generally, inflated. 3. Erebia section. — Always two ocellated spots towards the tip of the fore-wings ; others frequently developed, but some- times obsolete, the front ones often confluent. Costal nervure inflated or thickened, but never the median and sub-median nervures. 4. Hipparchia section. — Generally only one eye towards the apex of the fore-wings, but often a second, between the two lower median nervules. Costal nervure inflated, and oc- casionally the median and sub-median nervures also. I. Euptychia Section. With the exception of Palceonymfiha, Butler, which is Chinese, the few genera of this section are all American. The principal genus after Euptychia is Taygctis, Hubner, which much resembles it, but includes larger species, measur- ing from two to four inches across the wings. Oressinoma typhla (Doubl. and Hew.), mentioned as an aberrant genus of this section, hardly resembles a Satyrid. It expands rather more than an inch and a half, and is white, with brown bor- ders, and short but very broad wings, on the under side is a stone-coloured sub-marginal line, bordered on the outside by an orange one, which is deeply zig-zag on the upper part of the hind-wings. GENUS EUPTYCHIA. Euptychia, Hubner, Verz. bek. Schmett., p. 53 (1S16); West- woodmen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 372 (1S51); Butler, P. Z. S., 1866, p. 458; 1867, p. 104; Schatz and Rober, Exot. Schmett, ii., p. 208 (1889). This is one of the largest genera of the Sub-family. It probably numbers about 200 species at present, and is ex- EUPTYCHIA. 2T7 clusively American. The species are of rather small size, with hairy eyes, and rounded and slightly dentated wings, and are brown in colour (rarely blue or white), with longitudinal dusky lines, and a sub-marginal row of eyes, these markings being much less conspicuous on the upper surface. The nervures of the fore-wings are much thickened at the base; and the cells of the wings are rather long and broad. Taygetis, Hiibner, is an allied Tropical American genus, containing much larger species, in which the wing cells are shorter and narrower. Although Euptychia is most numerous in the Tropics, yet several species inhabit the United States, and their meta- morphoses have been described by American authors. EUPTYCHIA BRIXIUS. (Plate XXXV., Fig. 4.) Satyrus brixius, Godart, Enc. Me'th., ix., p. 490, no. 42 (1823). As this species is but little known, and our figure is not taken from the type specimen, I think it best to insert Godart's diagnosis, and a condensed translation of his original descrip- tion. "Sat. alis integris, teneris, ccerulescentibus, strigis utrinque sex fuscis, posticarum quarta subtus ocellis quinque bipu- pillatis." This Butterfly measures about an inch and a half across the wings. The upper side is of a bluish-ashy, with six transverse rays, and a double marginal line, of a brownish-black. On the under side the pattern of the upper surface is repro- duced, but the ground-colour is lighter, and the fourth ray of the hind-wings is marked with five eyes, of which the first, the second, and the last are surrounded with a whitish iris ; the t 2 , T g LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. two others have no iris. All the eyes are black, with a double silvery pupil. Described by Godart from a single specimen sent from Brazil by the Chevalier de Langsdorff. II. Ypthima Section. This section includes brown, tawny, or whitish species of small size, which are very numerous in the Palaearctic Region, though they are also represented in India, Australia, Africa, and Western North America, &c. They have usually a sub- apical eye on the fore-wings, often double, and a more or less well-developed row of sub-marginal eyes on at least the under surface of the hind-wings also. The two most representative genera are Ypthima and Ccenonoympha, of Hiibner. The sexes do not usually differ much, though in the East European ^enus Ttiphysa the male is brown and the female white. GENUS YPTHIMA. Ypthima, Hiibner, Verz. bek. Schmett, p. 63 (1S16) ; West- wood, Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 394 (1851) j Schatz and Rober, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 210 (1SS9). Yphthima, Hcwitson, Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. (3), ii., p. 283 (1S65). The type is Y. pliilomela (Linn.), a small brown Butterfly from the Indian Region. The species of Ypthima are small brown Butterflies (some- limes varied with white), generally measuring from one to two inches across the wings, and easily distinguishable from other Butterflies which most resemble them, by the presence of a very large black eye in a yellow ring, marked with two white pupils. This is placed near the tip of the fore-wings. On the hind-wings there are usually two or three sub-marginal eyes, similar, but smaller, and with only one pupil each. On the under side of the hind-wings the series of eyes is generally broken, /. 2. Epuiephile jamrcu. 3. ErebicL cassiope. 4.5. BipparchicL hyperanthus. CCENONYMPHA. 2ig and arranged in pairs, and the surface of the wings is covered with shoit brown and grey dashes. In Y. ceylonica, Hewitson, the hind-wings are white. The species are rather numerous in Asia and Africa, but do not quite reach Europe, though one of them, Y. asterope (Klug), is found in Syria. They are insects of very feeble flight, frequenting grassy places. YPTHIMA BERA. {Rate XXXV., Fig.$) Yphthima bera, Hewitson, Ent. M. Mag., xiv., p. 107 (1877). Upper side. — Rufous-brown. Fore-wings with one ocellus near the apex, with rufous border, and marked by two minute white spots, and enclosed in a large border of pale brown, triangular at its lower extremity, and zig-zag on its inner side. A sub-marginal line of brown. Hind-wings with two ocelli between the median nervules, a rufous border and white pupil ; two sub-marginal bands of brown. Under side. — Fore-wings as above, except that there is an indistinct band of brown crossing the cell. Hind-wings with a band of brown before the middle, a sub-marginal series of five black ocelli, with a rufous border and pupil of white, the whole enclosed by a common linear brown band, the ocellus second from the costal margin smaller than the others. Expands i T 6 ^ inches. (Heicitson.) From Lake Nyasa. There are four specimens in the Hewit- son collection in the British Museum. Mr. Trimen describes another South African species of YptJiima as having a weak flight, and frequently settling on the ground. GENUS CCENONYMPHA. Ccenonympha, Hubner, Verz. bek. Schmett, p. 65 (1816); Westwood, Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 396 (1851) ; Schatz and Rober, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 212 (1889). Type, C. tiphcn, Rott. 2 2o Lloyd's natural history. Eyes naked ; antennae short, slender, ringed with white, with a rather large club ; all the principal nervures of the fore- wings considerably dilated. These are Butterflies of rather small size, with rounded tawny or brown wings, rarely marked with eyes above, except the indication of one at the tip of the fore-wings, but generally with a conspicuous row of eyes on the hind-wings beneath. They are confined to the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, and are mostly heath-frequenting or woodland insects ; a few species, however, are found on damp moors. Four species are here included in the British list, one of which however, is not fairly established as really British ; and several others have been reputed British, though probably in error, One of these, C. hero (Linn.), is a brown species, with nume- rous and conspicuous black eyes with blue pupils in orange rings, bounded outside on the under side of the hind-wings by a bluish and inside by a white line. It is said to have been taken many years ago in Ashdown Forest, where C. davus (C. typhon) and C. arcania and other rare Butterflies are like- wise said to have been found. But there has been no recent confirmation of these captures. One species, C. californica^ West wood, is so pale as to be almost whitish. The Australian genus, Hypacysta, Westwood, resembles Cceno- nymp/ni, but the hind-wings are more produced at the anal angle. THE MARSH RINGLET. COENONYMPHA TIPHON, {Plate XXXIV., Fi^s. 3, 4.*) Papilio tiplion, Rott., Naturforscher, vi., p. 15 (1775). Papilio davus, Fabr., Gen. Ins., p. 259 (1777). * Wrongly named C. folydama in the plate. I followed the nomencla- ture of the old Naturalist's Library, and did not discover the mistake until the plate had been printed off. — W. F. K. CCENONYMPHA. 22 1 Papilio typhon, Haworth, Lepid. Brit., p. 16, no. 18 (1803). Hipparchia iphis, Steph. (nee Den. and Schiff.), 111. Brit. Ent. Haust., i., p. 64, pi. 7, figs. 1, 2 (182S). Hipparchia darns, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust., i., p. 67 (1S28). Coznonympha typhon, Kirby, Man. Eur. Butt. p. 70 (1862); id. Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 42 (1879). Cccnonympha tiphon, Lang, Butterflies of Europe, p. 311, pi. 87, figs. 2, 4 (18S4). Coznonympha davits, Barrett, Lep. of Brit. Is!., i., p. 255, pi. 36, figs. 1, 1, a-g (1893); Buckler, Laivre of Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., p. 35, pi. vi., fig. 3 (1SS6). Very like C.pamphilus (infra, p. 225), but larger; sometimes nearly twice as large. Wings nearly uniform in colour above and below. Fore-wings almost always shoeing one or two indistinct eyes ; hind-wings with at most one or two indis- tinct eyes near the anal angle. Eyes distinct beneath ; fore- wings with one eye at the tip, and rarely one or two smaller ones. Hind-wings grey, with a white transverse band, which is much interrupted, and sometimes reduced to two white spots. Hind-wings with five or six eyes parallel to the hind- margin, the uppermost largest ; that nearest the anal angle often double, or represented by two very small eyes close together. The insect varies greatly in the size and number of the eyes. It appears in June in low-lying meadows, never in gardens, woods, or corn-fields, and is constantly on the wing, very rarely settling. Its flight, however, is slow, and it is easy to capture on the wing. It is fairly common, but not very abundant. This is Von Rottenburg's account of the occurrence of the Butterfly near Halle in 1776. This insect appears to be identical with C. davus, of which Fabricius gives the following account : — " A Butterfly of moderate size. Fore-wings above rounded, 2 22 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. fulvous [tawny], with two black blind eyes, and a third very small one, which is rather indistinct ; beneath with a white stripe, and with two eyes pupilled with white. Hind-wings above darker, with five or six blind eyes ; beneath grey, with an interrupted white stripe, and six black eyes with white pupils, the last double. Taken at Hamburg." We have thought it best to give a full abstract both of Von Marsh Ringlet {Ccchonympha tiphon). Rottenburg's and of Fabricius' descriptions, because the works in which they were published are not very accessible, and there has been some difference of opinion as to whether we have more than one allied species in Britain, or not. These Butterflies are very variable, and the pale form, the true C. tiphon, which is more of a mountain insect with us than C. polydama, is more frequently met with in Scotland and Ireland than in England. It appears in July. In the extreme north of Europe we meet with the variety C. isis (Thunb.), which is still paler, with the eyes almost wholly wanting. Several varie- ties are represented in our woodcuts. CCENONYMTHA. 2 23 The following Butterfly is sometimes called C. davus in England, as distinguished from C. typhon ; but whether it is distinct or not, it is more correct to retain the name under which it was originally described by Haworth. THE SCARCE MARSH RINGLET. CCENONYMPHA POLYDAMA. {Plate XXXIV., Figs. 1,2.) Papilio polydama, Haworth, Lepid. Brit, p. 16, no. 17 (1803). / Scarce Marsh Ringlet [Comonympka polydamd). Hipparchia polydama, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 66, P l. 7, fig. 3(18:7). 224 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. Ccejionympha tiphon, var. rothliebi, Staud., Cat. Lepid. Eur., p. 14 (1861). This species or variety is darker than C. typhon, and is marked with much larger and more distinct eye-spots, above and below. It is found in July in low swampy places, in the North of England and Wales, and is said to have been met with here and there along the East coast, in Lincolnshire, Norfolk, &c, but has probably long been exterminated in the South by drainage and cultivation ; it may possibly linger in out-of-the-way places like Ashdown Forest, in Sussex, the most southerly locality in England where it has been stated to occur. The larva is green, with white lines, and feeds on cotton- grass near the roots in May ; the pupa is green, with dusky stripes on the wing-cases. Several varieties of the Butterfly are represented in the woodcuts. CCENONYMPHA ARCANIA. Papilio arcania, Linn. Faun. Suec. (ii.), p. 273, no. 1045 (1761). Papilio arcanius, Linn., Syst. Nat. (xii.), i., pt. 2, p. 791, no. 242 (1767) ; Esper, Schmett., i., pt. 1, p. 285, pi. 21, fig. 4 (i777)' Hipparchia arcanius, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 69 (1S2S) ; Curtis, Brit. Ent, v., pi. 205 (182S). Canonympha arcania, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 41, pi. 13, figs. 7, a-c (1879) ; Lang, Butterflies of Europe, p. 306, pi. 75, figs. 4, 5 (1884); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 262 (1S93). This is a Butterfly which cannot easily be mistaken by any- one fortunate enough to meet with it. It measures about an inch and a quarter in expanse. The fore-wings are of a reddish- tawny colour, with a broad brown border, and an apical eye beneath ; the hind-wings are brown above and paler beneath, COENONYMPHA. 225 with a white central band, within which is an eye-spot on the costa ; the hind-margin is reddish, with a blue marginal line, and three very small eyes. It is found in bushy places and open woods, and is very common in many parts of the Conti- nent in June and July. In England it is said to have been taken in Ashdown Forest, along with C. Aero, and although this record is more than doubtful, the Butterfly has been reported to have been met with of late years in various localities in the South of England, and some of the records appear to be trustworthy. There is no reason why it should not be really a British insect, and we have therefore called special attention to it in the present work. The larva is green, with dark green lines on the back, and yellow stripes on the sides. It feeds on grass in May. THE SMALL HEATH BUTTERFLY. CCENONYMPHA PAMPHILUS. [Plate XXXIV., Figs. 5, 6.) Papilio pampliilus, Linn., Syst. Nat. (x.), i., p. 472, no. S6 (175S); id. Faun. Suec. (ii.), p. 273, no. 1044 (1761); Esper, Schmett., i., pt. 1, p. 282, pi. 21, fig. 3 (1777); i., pt. 2, p. 133, pi. 78, fig. 4 (17S2). Hipparchia pamphilus, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust., i., p. 69 (1828). Coenonympha pampliilus, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 42, pi. 13, fig. S (1879); Lang, Butterflies of Europe, p. 310, pi. 77, fig. 5 (1S84) ; Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., p. 263, pi. 36, figs. 2, 2, a-f (1893) ; Buckler, Larva; of Brit. Butter- flies and Moths, i., p. 172, pi. 6, fig. 4 (iS85). This Butterfly, as its English name denotes, is the smallest of its genus, seldom expanding much more than an inch across the wings. It is tawny, with narrow brown hind-margins, and a brown dot at the tip of the fore-wings, which corresponds to a 226 Lloyd's natural history. well-marked eye with a white pupil and yellow ring on the under surface. The hind-wings beneath are greenish-grey, darkest at the base, with an irregular and interrupted whitish band, and with a few white dots nearer the margins, which, in the South European variety, C. lyllus (Esper), a larger form than ours, have a tendency to form eye-spots. The Small Heath is common throughout the greater part of the Palaearctic Region, on heaths and in meadows, and is the only species of the genus which can be called common in Britain. The larva is green, with darker dorsal and lateral stripes bordered with white. It feeds on various grasses, and as there is a succession of broods, it may be met with at almost any time between April and September. The pupa is likewise green. III. Erebia Section. This section includes the mountain Butterflies of the North- ern Hemisphere {Erebia, Dalm.), the Himalayas (Cai/erebia, Moore), South Africa {Leptoneura, Wallengren), and New Zea- land {Argyrophenga, Doubl., &c). The two last genera have longer wings than the others, and the last is ornamented with silvery spots beneath. The only genus which needs further notice here is the following : — GENUS EREBIA. Erebia, Dalm., K. Vet. Akad. Handl., Stockholm, 1816, p. 5S; Doubl., Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 376 (1851). Maniola, Schrank, Fauna Boica, ii., pt. 1, p. 152 (1S01); Meig., Eur. Schmett, i., p. 194 (1829); Kirby, Cat. Diurn. Lepid., p. 57 (1S71); Schatz and Rober, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 213 (1SS9). As Erebia is the name in general use for these Butterflies, and E. ligea (Linn.) is undoubtedly the type, we have pre- fffM /. 2. Cscmorynnphcv potydcuna 3. 4-. „ iiphoTv. .5 S. ,. pamphilus EREDIA. 227 fared to use this name provisionally in the present work, as the type of Maniola (Schrank), is somewhat doubtful ; and the latter name may ultimately have to be used for some other genus. Eyes naked; antennae slender, with a rather long club. Fore- wings with only the sub-costal nervure much dilated at the base Wings rounded or oval, sometimes slightly dentated, generally bro.vn, with a fulvous (and sometimes macular) sub-margina, band containing black or ocellated spots. These Butterflies are known as " Mountain Browns," and are very numerous in the mountains of Europe and Asia. As Britain, however, is situated in the north-west of Europe, where Butterflies are less numerous than in any other part, and as our mountain systems are isolated, both from the Alps and the Scandinavian mountains, our highland fauna is very poor. The only truly mountain Butte: fly in Britain is Erebiacassiofe (Fabr.). THE ARRAN BROWN. EREBIA LIGEA. {Plate XXX., Figs. 1, 2.) Papilio ligea, Linn., Syst. Nat. (x.), i., p. 473, no. 97 (175 s ); id. Faun. Suec. (ii.), p. 473, no. 1050 (1764); Hubner, Eur. Schmett., i., figs. 225-227 (1797 ?). Papilio alexis, Espcr, Schmett., i. pt. 1, p. 369, pi. 44, figs. 1, 2 (i779) 3 i-> P*- 2 , P- 2 4, pl- 5 2 , fi g- 1 ( T 7 So )- Hipparchia ligea, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust., i., p. 61, pl. 6 (1829). Erebia ligea, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 36, pl. 12, fig. 8 (1878) ; Lang, Butterflies of Europe, p. 261, pl. 61, fig. 6; larva, pl. 76, fig. 3 (1884); Barrett, Lepid. of Brit. IsL, i., p. 220 (1893). This is a species frequenting wooded hill-sides rather than 2 - s Lloyd's natural history. mountains. Il - "( n found in company with E. the Continent, but there is no evidence that it is truly British. e are two specimens in the British Museum which belonged to the collection of the late James Francis Stephens, and are They are said to have been taken in the Isle of Arran by Sir Patrick Walker : but one of the specimens is not E. ligea at all, but belongs to an allied mountain species, E - •' *per) 3 and this throws additional doubt on the authentic:': ; specimens. If the I were really a native of the Isle of Arran, it could not have been over- looked by the many collectors who have %isited the island of late y The Butterfly is of a rich brown colour, with red marginal bands, marked with four bla te pjpils on the fore-wings, and three on the hind-wings. The two eyes nearest the tip of the fore-wings are more or less confluent. The of the hind-wings is marked with an irregular and interru] t = d white band, at once distinguishing it from nearly all the other known species of the genus. It measures from an inch and a half to an inch and three-quarters across the wings. It flies in July and Am list The larva is green 5 h on the back, and with white idinal stripes on the sides. It feeds on grass in sprint and autumn. ° THE SCOTCH ARGUS. EREBIA .ETHIOPS. to XXX., Figs. 3, 4.) i er, Schmett, i., pt. 1, p. 312, pi. 25, fig. 3 - 2 >P- 73, PL 63, fig. 1 (1 7 7 8? 7, Fabr., Mant. Ins., ::'.. p. 41, no. 412 (17S7). - - Schmett., i., figs. 220-222 (1797?;. EREEIA. 229 Hipparchia blandina, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. llaust., i., p. 62 (1827). Erebia athiops, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 35, pi. 12, fig. 7 (1878); Lang, Butterflies of Europe, p. 260, pi. 63, fig. 5 (1884). Erebia blandina, Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 216, pi. 29, figs. 2, 2, a-c (1893) \ Buckler, Larvae Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i.. p. 30, pi. 6, fig. 1 (1S86). Wings dark brown above, with sub-marginal red bands, marked with from three to five eye-spots on the fore-wings, and three (rarely two) on the hind-wings. On the under surface the hind-wings have rather more than the basal half deep fuscous, obsoletely terminating in a sinuated line, and followed by a bluish-ashy fascia, posteriorly tinted with red, in which are one or more very small eye-spots. It measures an inch and a half, or an inch and three-quarters, across the wings. This Butterfly, though somewhat local, is common in many places in Scotland and the North of England in July and August, extending as far south as Lancashire. On the Con- tinent it is frequently found among wooded hills in company with E. ligea. The larva, which feeds on grass in May, is light green, with brown and white longitudinal stripes; the head is reddish. The egg is ribbed, and is of a whitish colour, speckled with brown. THE MOUNTAIN RINGLET. EREBIA EPIPKRON, [Piatt XXX III., Fig. 3.*) Papilio epiphron, Knoch, Beitr. Ins., in'., p. 131, pi. 6 fio- 1 (1783). Erebia epiphron, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 1^, pi. 12. fig. 6 (1S7S); Lang, Butterflies of Europe, p. 241 (1SS4) * The race, E. cassio/e, is here figured. 23° Lloyd's natural history. Var. Erelria cassiope. Papilio cassiope, Fabr., Mant. Ins., ii., p. 42, no. 417 (1787); Hubner, Eur. Schmett., i., figs. 626-629 (1823 ?). Hipparchia cassiope, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust., i., p. 63, pi. 8 (1828). Erebia cassiope, Buckler, Larvae of Brit. Eepid., i., pp. t,^, 171, pi. 6, fig. 2 (1SS6). Erebia epiphron, var. cassiope, Ling, loc. cit., pp. 241, 242, pi. 58, fig. 2; larva, pi. 58, fig. 1 (1884K Erebia epiphron, Barrett, Lepid. Brit. IsL, p. 210, pi. 29, figs. 1, ia, b (1893). This is the smallest British species of the genus, generally measuring about an inch and a quarter across the wings. It is brown, with red sub-marginal bands, more or less divided into spots by the veins, and marked with four, or fewer, blind eyes on each wing. In the allied form, E. epiphrou (Knoch), which many writers consider to be the same species, but which is very doubtfully British, the eyes are ocellated. On the under side of the hind-wings, the red round the eyes, which is often reduced to rings on the upper surface, is wanting. The Butterfly is found at a considerable elevation on some of the mountains of the Lake District, and those of Scotland and Ireland, in June, but is very local, and not usually very abundant. The larva, which feeds on s;rass, is pale green, with darker longitudinal lines, and a white line on the sides. IV. Hipparchia Section. The species of this section are very numerous throughout the Palrearctic Region, and one or two groups of Hipparchia are well represented in the Nearctic Region. Schatz and Rober also refer the Australian genera Hetero?iympha, Wallengren, and Xenica, Westwood, to this section, but these are somewhat aber- HIPPARCHIA. 231 rant, being large tawny Butterflies, more resembling true Satyrus. In South America the section is very poorly repre- sented, Argyrophorus argenteus (Blanchard), from Chili, being the only remarkable species belonging to it. GENUS HIPPARCHIA. Hipparchia, Fabr. in Illiger, Mag. Insekt, vi., p. 281 (1807); Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust., i., p. 53 (1827). Satyrus, pt. Latr., Enc. Meth., ix., pp. n, 460 (1819--1823); Westwood, Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 388 (1851); Schatz and Rober, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 215 (1893). The name HipparcJua was used by the older English authors for the whole of the Satyr/nce, as was Satyrus by the French. Dr. Scudder argues that H. hyperanthus (Linn.) should be re- garded as the type of this genus, to which there seems to be no valid objection. Eyes naked ; antennce gradually thickened, or with a more or less distinct club at the extremity. Wings with the sub- costal and median nervures thickened at the base ; hind-wings more or less dentated. This genus includes species of moderate size, from an inch and a half to three inches in expanse. The wings are brown or black, generally with a white or tawny sub-marginal band, extendingover more or less of the disc; the fore-wings are almost always marked with a dark eye at the tip, with a white pupil, and another towards the hinder angle, while there is a third smaller eye near the anal angle of the hind-wings. In the males the second eye on the fore-wings is often obsolete on the upper surface, and the pale markings are less extended than in the females, the latter being often considerably larger than their partners. In another section of the genus the wings are dark brown IT 232 Lloyd's natural history. or black, with a varying number of sub-marginal eyes, some- times of considerable size, and marked with blue or white pupils. We have but two species in England, H. semele and H. hyperatithus, representing the two sections of the genus respectively; but the genus is well represented in Europe and Asia by much larger and handsomer species than ours. One of the finest of the foreign species is H. parisatis (Kollar), which is common in Western Asia, as far as the frontiers of India. It is a large brown Butterfly, with a pale blue marginal band on all the wings. THE GRAYLING. HIPPARCHIA SEMELE. {Plate XXXII., Figs. 1, 2, 3.) Papilio semele, Linn.. Syst. Nat. (x.), i., p. 474, no. 101 (1758); id. Faun. Suec. (ii.), p. 276, no. 1051 (1761) j Esper, Schmett., i., p. 114, pi- 8, fig- 1 (i777>- Hipparchia semele, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 56 (1827); Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 29 (1S7S); Buckler, Larva? of Brit. Butterflies and Moths, p. 28, pi. 4, fig. 3(1886). Satyrus semc 7 e, Lang, Butterflies of Europe, p. 277, pi. 67, fig. 4 (1884); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl , i., p. 222, pi. 30(1893). The Grayling measures from an inch and three quarters to two inches and three quarters across the wings, which are brown, with tawny bands on the wings, darkest on the outer side. The eyes of the fore-wings are well marked on both sides, and that of the hind-wings is likewise distinct above. The tawny markings of the fore-wings are more or less divided into spots, and, in the male, are confined to the immediate neighbourhood of the eyes. On the under surface, the tawny colouring of the fore-wings extends to the base, being only slightly interrupted by blackish markings ; the hind-wings are brown beneath, with an irregular white transverse hand. IIIPPARCHIA. 233 The Butterfly is found on heaths, especially in rocky and stony places, chiefly on the chalk and limestone. It is very common in many parts of the British Islands, though some- what local, and is met with in July and August. On the Con- tinent it is widely distributed. It frequently settles on rocks and on the trunks of trees. A very dark local form is found in Madeira. The larva is light green, with darker longitudinal lines, and brownish legs. It feeds on grass in April and May. The pupa is likewise green. THE RINGLET. HIPPARCHIA HYPERANTHUS. {Plate XXXIII., Fi S s. 4, 5.) Papilio hyperanthus, Linn. Syst. Nat., x., p. 471, no. 85 (1758); id. Faun. Suec. (ii.), p. 273, no. 1043 (1761); Esper, Schmett., i., pt. 1, p. 78, pi. 5, fig. 1 (i777)i ' l -> P l - 2, p. 38, pl- 57, %s. 2-4(1780). Hipparchia hyperanthus, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 60, (1828) ; Buckler, Larva; of Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., p. 170, pl. 5, fig. 3( l886 )- Epinephele hyperanthus, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 39, pl. 13, fig. 3 (1878) ; Lang, Butterflies of Europe, p. 302, pl. 74, fig. 4 (1884); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 231, pl. 35 ( l8 93)- Var. Hipparchia arete. Var. Papilio arete, Mull., Faun. Fridr., p. 36, no. 330 (1764). Papilio polymeda, Hiibner, Eur. Schmett., i., fig. 172* (1794?)- Epinephele hyperanthus, var. arete, Lang, loc. cit., p. 302, pl. 74, fig. 5 (1S84). This is a smaller Butterfly than the Grayling, measuring about u 2 234 LLOYD S NATURAL HISTORY. an inch and a half, or an inch and three quarters across the wings. It is of a smoky brown above, with more or less dis- tinct traces of sub-marginal spots in yellow rings. The female is lighter, and with more distinct eyes. The under side is paler, Hipparchia hyperanthus. Three Varieties of the under side. with a larger number of spots, which are pupiUed with white, and are most numerous on the hind-wings. The number and distinctness of the spots vary very much in different specimens, and in the variety H. arete (Miiller), the spots are entirely HIPPARCHIA. 235 obsolete, nothing being left of them but the pupils, which form a row of white dots on the under surface of the wings. The Ringlet is a very common Butterfly in woods, fre- quenting glades, rides, and the outskirts rather than the thick shade ; it appears in June, July, and August. Hipparchia hyperanthus. Three Varieties of the under side. The larva is reddish-grey, with a brown line on the back, and a yellowish one on the sides ; it feeds on grass in May and June. A long series of varieties of the under surface are represented in the accompanying woodcuts of the Ringlet. 236 Lloyd's natural history. GENUS F.riNEPHELE. Epinephele, Hiibner, Verz. bek. Schmett., p. 59 (1S16); Herr.- Schaff., Schmett., Eur., i., p. 81 (1S44); Schatz and Rober, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 216 (1S89). Type, E. janira (Linn.). Eyes naked ; antennae slender, slightly clubbed ; wings brown or tawny ; fore-wings with two nervures thickened at the base; hind-wings more or less dentated ; middle tibiae a little shorter than the tarsi. The Butterflies of this genus much resemble Ilipparchia in structure, but are smaller, weaker, and somewhat differently coloured. They may be divided into two groups, of which our British species, E. janira and E. tithonus, are typical. They are not very numerous in species, and are most abundant in the Mediterranean Region, and in Western Asia ; the group of E. tithonus is specially characteristic of South-Western Europe. THE MEADOW DROWN. EPINEPHELE JANIRA. {Plate XXXIII., Figs. 1. 2.) a. Female. Papilio jurtina, Linn., Syst. Nat. (x.), p. 475, no. 104 (175S); id. Faun. Suec. (ii.), p. 276, no. 1052 (1761); Hiibner, Eur. Schmett., i., figs. 161, 162 (1794). p. Male, rap ilia janira, Linn., Syst. Nat, (\\), p. 475, no. to6 (175S); id. Faun. Suec. (ii.), p. 276, no. 1053 (1761); Esper, Schmett., i., pt. 1, p. 128, pi. 10, figs. 1, 2 (1777); i., pt. 2, p. 150, pi. 82, fig. 5 (1783). Ilipparchia janira, Steph., 111. Brit.Ent. Ilaust., i., p. 59 (1S2S); Buckler, Larvae of Brit. Butterflies and Muths, p. 166, pi. v., fig. 1 (18S6). EPINEPHELE. 237 Epinepheh j'am'ra, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 40, pi. 13, figs. 4a, b (1878); Lang, Butterflies of Europe, p. 298, pi. 73, fig. 3 (1884); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 2 4o, pi. 33 (1893). The Meadow Brown is probably the very commonest of all our Butterflies, and may be seen in abundance in summer in every field, and along every hedgerow. It measures from an Meadow Brown (Epinephele janira). Under side of Female. inch and a half to two inches across the wings, which are brown above, with a well-marked black eye with a white pupil at the tip of the fore-wings, within which is a conspicuous ful- / Variety of Male. vous blotch or band in the female. The fore-wings are fulvous beneath, crossed within the eye by a darker line, continued on the hind-wings which are brown or yellowish-brown, with a 238 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. more or less distinct paler band, and two or more brown or yellowish sub-marginal dots. The South European form, E. hispulla (Hiibner), is larger and more brightly coloured, the female especially having a sub- marginal fulvous band or patch on the hind-wings above, while the markings below are more pronounced. The more brightly- coloured British specimens often exhibit a slight tendency to variation in this direction. The larva is light green, with a darker line on the back, and a whitish line on the sides. It feeds on several common grasses, particularly the smooth-stalked meadow-grass (Fca Variety of Female. pratensis). The pjpa is also light green, streaked with brown. The larva, like that of most of the summer Satyrince, may be looked for in March and April, while the Butterfly begins to appear in the course of June. Not only is this Butterfly unusually abundant, but its ap- pearance seems to be but little affected by the vicissitudes of the seasons. The woodcuts represent the under surface of the Butterfly, and instance as well a curious whitish discoloration to which this and many other Satyrina are occasionally subject, and which is rarely symmetrical on both sides of the wings. / PiereUn ceryce 2.J\rg\Tnph oru^s argrnieihs J. Yp-Qruna^ beret 4 Eupiychut brLocats ,1 MycU/. EPINEPHELE. 239 THE LARGE HEATH BUTTERFLY. EPINEPHELE TITHONUS. {Plate XXXI., Figs. 4, 5.) Papilio tithonus, Linn., Mant. Plant, p. 537 (m 1 )- Papilio phcedm, Esper, Schmett., i., pt. 1, p. 120, pi. 9, fig. 1, p. 323, pi. 28, fig. 3 (i777). Hipparchia tithonus, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust, i., p. 58 (1828) ; Buckler, Larva? of Brit. Butterflies and Moths, p. 167, pi. 5, fig. 2 (1SS6). Epinephek tithonus, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 40, pi. 13, fig. 5 (1878); Lang, Butterflies of Europe, p. 310, pi. 74, fig. 2 (1884); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 245, pi. 34 (1893). A smaller insect than the Meadow Brown Butterfly, mea- suring only an inch and a quarter or an inch and a half across The Large Heath {Epinephele tithonus). Under side of Male. the wings, the female being usually much larger than the male. The fore-wings are fulvous, except the borders, and are marked with a conspicuous black eye with two white pupils ; the hind- wings are brown, with a large sub-marginal fulvous band or blotch. In the male the fulvous portion of the wings is darker than in the female, and the lower part is marked by a large brown blotch running up into it. On the under side the fore- wings are coloured nearly as above; the hind-wings are greyish- brown, with an irregular greyish band beyond the middle, marked with three or four white dots in reddish-brown rings. 240 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. The Butterfly appears in summer, a little later than E.janira, and is not uncommon in bushy places. The larva feeds on the annual meadow-grass (Poa annua), and other grasses in May and June. It is of a greenish or grey colour, with a dark dorsal line and two pale lateral lines ; the head is reddish. The woodcut represents the under surface of the male. GENUS MELANARGIA. Melanargia, Meigen, Eur. Schmett, i., p. 97 (1S29); Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 36 (1878); Schatz and Ruber, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 216 (1889). Arge, Hiibner (nee Schrank), Verz. bek. Schmett., p. 60 (1816). Type, M. galatea, Linn. Antennas long; club slender and gradually formed ; hind- wings dentated. Front legs in both sexes almost microscopic, hidden among the hairs of the pectus. Wings varied with creamy-white and black, which often obscures the sub-marginal eyes on the upper surface. There are several species of this genus in Southern Europe, and Northern and Western Asia, but only one (the type) is met with north of the Alps. THE MARBLED WHITE. MELANARGIA GALATEA. {Plate XX XL, Figs. I, 2.) Papilio galaihea, Linn., Syst. Nat. (x.), i., p. 474, no. 99 (1758); Hiibn., Eur. Schmett., i., figs. 183-185 (1794?). Hipparchia galathea, Steph., 111. Brit. Ent. Haust., i., p. 57 (1828). Met 'anargia galathea, Kirby, Eur. Butterflies and Moths, p. 37, pi. 12, fig. 9 (1878); Barrett, Lepid. Brit. Isl., i., p. 204, pi. 28 (1S93Y MELANARGIA. 2 4 x Melanargia galatea, Lang, Butterflies of Europe, p. 230, pi. 55, fig. 1 ; larva and pupa, pi. 76, fig. 1 (18S4). Arge galathea, Buckler, Larva of Brit. Butterflies and Moths, i., p. 160, pi. 3, fig- 4 (18S6). This is a very pretty Butterfly, which can hardly be con- founded with any other British species on account of the peculiar character of its markings. Like all the species of its genus, it is varied with creamy-white and black above ; on the under surface of the hind-wings it is white in the male and yellow in the female, with a marginal row of black spots, and a transverse grey band across the centre, never interrupted in the middle, as the corresponding band is in some continental species of the genus. It averages about two inches in expanse, the female, as usual, being a little larger than the male. It varies somewhat in the amount of black and white on the wings; and specimens have been met with which were wholly white. It frequents damp meadows, and glades in woods, in June, July, and August ; and it is perhaps owing to drainage that it has become a very local insect in England. In many places on the Continent it is one of the most abundant species of the Satyrince. The larva is yellowish-green, with dark lines on the back and sides. The head is reddish-brown, and there are two small spines of the same colour at the hinder extremity of the body. It feeds in April and May on Timothy-grass (Phheum pratense), and other grasses. The only other genera of this section which need be men- tioned here, are (Eneis, Hubner, = Chionobas, Boisd., and Argyrophorus, Blanch. The former contains a number of Butterflies resembling small Hipparchice, but with the costal nervure of the fore-wings thickened (not swollen), a very long narrow fore-wing cell, and very hairy legs and palpi. They vary from pale brown to ochreous or tawny, and are almost 242 Lloyd's natural history. peculiar to the Polar and high Alpine regions of the Northern Hemisphere, though one or two are Steppe insects. GENUS ARGYROPHORUS. Argyrophorus % Blanch, in Gay, Hist.Chilena, vii., p. 30 (1852). THE SILVER BUTTERFLY. ARGYROPHORUS ARGENTEUS. Argyrophorus argenieus, Blanch., op.cit., p. 30, pi. 2, figs. 9 11 (1852). (Plate XXXV., Fig. 2.) It is hardly necessary to give any generic characters for this genus, the type of which is one of the most remarkable Butter- flies known, being entirely of a silvery lustre above, resembling silver-paper. Towards the tip of the fore-wings is a brownish spot, not ocellated. The under surface of the fore-wings is similar, but is marked with reddish-tawny towards the base ; the hind-wings are greyish-brown, with a row of imperfectly ocellated brown spots. It measures about two inches across the wings, and is found in the mountains of Chili. It is not a very common species in collections, owing to its habitat being little visited by entomologists. VI. Pronophila Group. These are large, or more rarely, moderate-sized Butterflies, almost entirely confined to the mountainous regions of Tropical America, where they take the place of our Erebice. They are generally of a black or brown colour, sometimes suffused with red, and often spotted or banded with white, pale yellow, and red. The fore-wings are broad, hardly longer than the hind- wings, with the hind-margin nearly straight, being only slightly curved, and rarely oblique. The hind-wings are generally dentated, sometimes very strongly, and the under surface is more often obscurely marbled than distinctly banded or PLATE XXXVI Ccerots i-horuurws ELYMNIIN^. 2 43 spotted- there are generally traces of a sub-marginal row of eves but these are rarely large or distinct Tl,„ • , 5 ' T P nnothil a, wLvood, £££„, Zt^TZT white or blue. ' the Species bein S fjaww //^/^(Boisduvnl) is another species of this ™„„ which is very remarkable fnr it, ,, peues 01 tms g r ™p, aberrant aI tS resembL ™ce to .W*W, an aoerrant American genus of Pieri,?** t> , inches arrn« th, fienOa. It measures about two incnes across the wings, which are dark brown shnrt « ^ dentated, with an oblique row of yellow sp 2 o t f -ngs, and the centre of the hind-wings 111 Stp wit la 1 tt yellow patch divided into spots b y the nervures. 'it is L/L SUB-FAMILY X. ELYMNIIN/E. obsc"^ e r wide as hish ' g,obui ^ ^^ "•* Larva-Smooth, with spines on the head, and a forked tail Jupa-With the head and thorax flattened, and tubercu- ceteT^ZtT Sk V WingSrather br0ad > and " ot ^ng, ceils closed, base of costal nervure swollen; hind-wines with J pre-costal celh and the hind-margins dent ted o an u d sometimes sub-caudate. Male with pencils of hair on ZSS Range-Indian and Austro-Malayan Regions, as far as New Guinea. Two species are found in West Africa. 244 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. Habits. — These insects affect forest country, frequenting damp, weedy places ; their flight is slow. Characteristics. — -The Elymniince almost all mimic insects of other groups — Danaina, Acrceince, or Pierince. They usually expand two or three inches across the wings, and may be distinguished at once from the species which they mimic, by their dentated wings. The prevailing colours are dark brown, white, tawny, yellowish, or greenish ; and the sexes are usually more or less unlike. The African species, Elymnias phegea (Fabricius) and E. bammakoo (Westwood), resemble brown and tawny, or brown and white species of Planema. One of the commonest of the East Indian species is E. tmdularis (Drury), in which the male is dark brown, with a curved row of large sub-marginal bluish spots on the fore-wings, and rusty- red borders to the hind-wings. The female is reddish-tawny, with broad brown borders marked with large white spots, and an oblique white band towards the tip of the fore-wings. It thus becomes one of the numerous mimics of Limnas chrysifpus, Linn. We have figured E cottonis (Hew.) from the Andaman Islands. The only other genus of this Sub-family is Dyctis, Boisd. D. agondas (Boisd.) has a dark brown male, and a white, dusky-bordered female. The hind-wings are marked beneath, towards the anal angle, with two or three large oval black spots, within which are blue markings. These are slightly visible on the upper surface also. Some authors regard the Elymniince as hardly sufficiently distinct from the Satyrincz to rank as a separate sub-family; but be this as it may, the Elymniince are almost entirely destitute of the ocellated markings which form so conspicuous a feature in nearly all the true Satyrincs, nor are the latter remarkable for mimicry. PLATE XXXV IL 4. /. 2. ElymnirAjS ecttrnix. ?> Acr^ea eenone. 4. Aduxote so (talis. \ EI/VMNIA3. 24; GENUS ELYMNIAS. Melanitis, pt. Fabr., in Illiger's Mag. Inseckt., vi p. 2S2 (1807) ; Westw.. Gen. Diurn. Lepid., p. 403 ( l8 5i)- £/y»r*i«, Hubner, Verz. bek. Schmett., p. 3 7 (i8i6)j Wallace, Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond, 1869, p. 3« (Monograph) Schatz, Exot. Schmett., ii., p. 225 (1889). ELYMNIAS COTTONIS. {Plate XXX VII. , Figs. 1, 2.) Melanitis cottonis, Hewitson, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), vol. 14, p. 35 s ( lS 74). Upper side.-Male.-Dark reddish-brown. Both wings with the outer margins rufous. Anterior wing with the costal margin lilac-blue. Under side.-As above, undulated with grey, the outer margins broadly undulated with grey and brown. Antenor wing with a large triangular grey spot, undulated with brown near the apex. Posterior wing with a white spot near the middle of the costal margin. Femaie.-Like the male, except that it is much larger and paler, and that the anterior wing has on its upper side some grey spots on the costal margin. ' Exp.,